ELEMENTS OF 
AGRICULTURE 

<F.P. SEVER 



«. 




Glass„ %M3 

Book. 'J5 ^ 

Copyright N!'.^:! 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ELEMENTS OF 

AGRICULTURE 

WITH 

INDUSTRIAL LESSONS 



BY 

F. p. SEVER 



o », 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1902 






THE "LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two CopjES Received 

AUG. "; 1902 

CoPyRIOHT ENTRY 

Cl.ASS^ XXa No. 

i ? g' t. r 
COPY B. 



Copyright, 1902, 
By F. p. sever. 



PREFACE. 

For thousands of years preceding the past cen- 
tury a forked stick was the only plow known to 
man with which he might till the soil; the hand 
sickle and the scythe were the only machines for 
reaping and mowing. The housewife had no sew- 
ing machine; the modern spindles and looms of 
our orreat factories were not invented. 

Thanks, then, to the past century for steel plows, 
for mowing and reaping machines, and for the 
application of steam and electricity ! Almost all 
the great inventions belong to the nineteenth cen- 
tury, — the Hercules of the Ages. 

With the advent of machinery, the civilizing 
influences of labor became more evident, and the 
struggle for bread and homes, for wealth and posi- 
tion, became sharper, and the world realizes to-day 
more fully than it has ever realized that not only 
mental, but also physical, strength and skill are 
essential to the success of the future citizen. 

In centuries past war was man's chief vocation 
and delight ; to-day the world begins to look upon 



iv Preface. 

labor as honorable. In the past, men have had the 
broad acres of new countries lying open before 
them, ready to reward slight efforts with abundant 
harvests; in the future, our workers must live in 
competition with machinery and by enriching an 
impoverished soil. In the past, while the world 
has been happy in nature's plenty, almost every 
kind of labor has been despised; in the future, 
intelligent labor must be relied upon to fill the 
emptied storehouse, and skill will be the measuring- 
unit. 

In view of these facts, effort has been made by 
the author to treat a few of the common duties of 
life in such a manner as to interest the young; to 
direct attention to the details of these common 
duties ; and to assist the parent and the teacher 
in inculcating principles of industry and economy. 

The author believes that the introduction of in- 
dustrial training into our schools and homes not 
only brings a needed practical element into edu- 
cation, but also enlarges the scope and adds to the 
means, by and through which a complete mental, 
moral, and physical development is attained. 

This volume is prepared with the hope that it 
may assist in giving such training. 



CONTENTS. 

PART ONE. 

CHAPTER I. 
DOMESTIC AXL\fALS AND FOWLS. 
[ntroductorv ........ 



Lesson I. Rover. (A St. Bernard.) 

1. Original Descriptions . - . . . . . , 3 

2. Anecdotes and Stories about Dogs ..... 4 

3. Notes 5 



Lesson IL The Horse. 

1. Grooming the Horse ........ 8 

2. Feeding and Watering . . .... . . -9 

{a) Grain Founder, {b) Water Founder. 

3. Questions . .10 

Lesson HL The Horse (continued). 

1. Shoeing the Horse. Adjusting the Harness .... 12 

2. Adjusting the Harness and Hitching the Team ... 13 

3. Questions . . . . . . ... . -14 

Lesson IV. Among the Poultry. 

1. Introductory . . . . . . . . . .16 

2. Care of the Henhouse. Feeding the Fowls .... 17 

3. Statistics 19 

V 



vi Contents. 



Lesson V. Among the Poultry (continued). 

PAGE 

1 . Care of the Fowls ......... 20 

2. Questions . . . . . ... . . .22 

3. V^arieties of Fowls ......... 24 

CHAPTER II. 

AV THE HOUSE, IN THE GARDEN, AND IN THE STORE. 

Introductory .......... 26 

Lesson VI. Helping Mother. 

1. Washing the Dishes 28 

2. Care of the Table w^are ........ 30 

3. Questions . . . . . . . . . -31 

Lesson VII. Helping Mother (continued). 

1. Sweeping and Dusting. Care of the Home .... 32 

2. Definitions .......... 33 

3. Outline for Original Work ••••••. 33 

Lesson VIII. Grandfather's Garden. 

1. Making Garden Beds. Planting Garden Seed ... 34 

2. The Hotbed. Growing Plants for Early Setting ... 36 

3. Notes and Experiments ........ 39 

Lesson IX. Grandfather's Garden (continued). 

1. Nature's Protectors of Garden Plants 41 

2. Nature's Protectors of Field Crops 42 

3. Nature's Protectors of Orchards 44 

Lesson X. Helping in the Store. 

1. Qualifications Required 46 

2. The Work to be done. Treatment of Customers ... 48 

3. Questions. Definitions 49 



Contents. vii 
PART TWO. 

CHAPTER 111. 
AV THE COUNTRY. 

PAGE 

Introductory . . . . . . . . . -Si 

Lesson XI. Farm Economy. 

1. Industry. Economy. Thrift ...... 53 

2. Care of P^arm Machinery ....... 54 

3. Care of Farm Animals ........ 55 

Lesson XII. Farm Dairying. 

1. Care of Cows . ......... 57 

2. Care of Milk and Milk Vessels 57 

3. Care of the Cream and Making Butter ..... 59 

Lesson XIII. The Farmers' Friends — Do you Know us? 

1. Some Birds that destroy Insects. Mice, and Other Pests . 65 

2. An Animal tliat destroys Worms and Beetles ... 67 

3. Notes 68 

4. Questions ' • • ■ 1^ 

Lesson XIV. In the Orchard. 

1. Introductory .......••• 7- 

2. Setting the Trees. Care of the Orchard . • • • 73 

3. Gathering and Marketing Fruit ...... 7^ 



PAGE 



viii Contents. 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE SOIL. 

Introductory 79 

Lesson XV. Story of the Soil. 

1. Origin of the Soil ......... 81 

2. Composition of the Soil 83 

3. Plant Foods in the Soil .84 

Lesson XVI. Story of the Soil (continued). 

1 . Texture of the Soil ........ 86 

2. Moisture in the Soil 88 

3. Experiments and Notes 90 

CHAPTER V. 

PLANTS. FIELD CROPS. 

Introductory . .93 

Lesson XVII. The Fairies in the Trees. 

1. Composition of Plants .95 

2. Uses or Functions of the Parts of Plants . ... -97 

3. Notes and Experiments 99 

Lesson XVIII. The Little Ear and its Big Friend. 

1. Rotation of Crops 102 

2. Notes {a) Soil, {b) Planting, {c') Cultivating, {d) Har- 

vesting, {e) Shredding. (/) Siloing . . . .104 

3. Definitions no 



Contents. ix 



Lesson XIX. Cotton. 

I'AGE 

1. The Plant 113 

2. Cotton Growing . . . . • • • • • ^^S 

3. Notes 119 

Lesson XX. Wheat. 

i. Wheat Soils. Wheat widely distributed . . . .120 

2. Wheat Growing 122 

3. Notes. Varieties . . . . . . . . -123 

Lesson XXL Rice. 

1. Varieties. Rice Soils. Preparation 127 

2. Irrigation of the Crop . . . . . . • .129 

3. Harvesting and Milling 130 

Lesson XXII. Tobacco. 

1. Tobacco Culture . . . . . • • • -132 

2. Curing the Product ........ 135 

3. Notes. Varieties 137 



CHAPTER VI. 

CONCLUSION. 
Lesson XXIII. Little Things. 

1. Illustrations 139 

2. Habits 140 

3. Conclusion .......... 141 



ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 



WITH 



INDUSTRIAL LESSONS. 

PART L 
CHAPTER L 

DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND FOWLS. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

Farming is the business of cultivating the soil. 
It has ever been the chief occupation of civilized 
men. Indeed, it is the history of the world that, 
while wild men hunt and fish for food, as soon as 
they begin to be tamed, they begin to till the soil. 

While at first they plow with forked sticks, cut 
their grain with awkward knives, and sow and reap 
with unskilled hands, in time they learn better ways 
and become more skillful in the use of tools. 

One of the first lessons in this most necessary 
occupation is the care and treatment of what we 
call Domestic Animals and Fowls. To learn to 



2 Elements of Agriculture. 

take proper care of these is a lesson that men 
have been learning for these hundreds of years, 
and the world has not yet learned it well. 

Not only are care and skill necessary, but also 
goodness and mercy. The boy who is kind to his 
dog has a faithful friend ; the man who loves his 
horse and tends him well has a noble servant. 

The hog and the cow, the sheep and the goat, 
have long been sources of food and wealth. Other 
animals, and many fowls, contribute to the comfort 
of man and the wealth of the world. They all 
should have our protection and our care. 



Domestic i\nimals and Fowls. 



LESSON I. 




ROVER. (A ST. BERNARD.) 
I. 



Our dog at home. Name, size, age, color. His 
food. His house (with drawing). His disposition. 
OuaHties that make him vakiable. 



Elements of Agriculture. 



2. 



Anecdotes and characteristic stories about dogs. 
Write a story suggested by each of the following 
pictures : — 








II. 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 




III. 



3. NOTES. 

1. A dog is made more useful and valuable by 

proper training. With dogs, as with other 
animals, kind, persuasive treatment is the 
best. 

2. A dog properly trained to assist in managing 

or driving animals will not chase or bite 
them. Animals that are chased or bitten 
do not fatten well, and become wild and 
shy. 

3. A dog that is cross or vicious should be dis- 

posed of at once. 

4. Hydrophobia is the most dangerous disease to 

which dogs are subject. 



) Elements of Agriculture. 

5. Swimming in cold water, or lying on damp 

or frozen earth, will often produce stiffness 
of the limbs and joints. The dog's kennel 
(house) should be warm ; ' the floor should 
be a few inches from the ground, and a 
fresh bed of straw occasionally provided. 
During warm weather the kennel may be 
kept closed, for the dog will then enjoy 
sleeping in the open air. 

6. Dogs should be well fed but not overfed. 

Their food should be simple and whole- 
some. When a dog is not properly cared 
for, he is likely to be ill or to stray fre- 
quently from home. 
7. ' A cat is quite as useful as a dog. A good 
mouser will often hunt for hours in the fields 
for mice. While thus hunting, it should not 
be disturbed in any way. Many farmers keep 
more than one cat. Many merchants keep a 
cat about the store. 

8. Cats and dogs have teeth well suited to eating 

flesh, which forms the principal part of their 
food. For this reason they are called Car- 
nivorous Animals. All animals that live 
mainly upon flesh belong to the order Car- 
nivora. 

9. The family, to which the dog belongs is called 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 7 

Canidae. It is from the Latin word canis^ 
meaning " dog." The wolf, the fox, and the 
jackal belong to this family. 

10. The family to which the cat belongs is called 

the Felidoe. It is from the Latin word 
felis, meaning " cat." The lion, the tiger, 
the panther, and many other animals belong 
to this family. 

11. The tongue of the dog is smooth, like the 

tongue of the horse or the sheep ; but the 
tongue of the cat is rough, like the tongue 
of the cow. 

1 2. The dog's claws are strong, and not very sharp ; 

but the cat's claws are slender, and almost as 
sharp as needles. Dogs chase their prey, 
but cats approach stealthily and seize their 
prey by a sudden spring. 

13. Of all domestic animals, the dog is the most 

affectionate and faithful. 

To THE Teacher. — Effort has been made by the author to 
reduce the theory of agriculture, and lessons on the common 
duties of life, to a practical working basis. Each lesson is di- 
vided into sections which may serve as subjects for recitations. 

Culture, nature study, practical knowledge, — these are the 
leading objects sought. Conditions, and the teacher's judgment, 
will determine the amount of supplementary work that may be 
done along lines suggested by the text. 



Elements of Agriculture. 



LESSON 11. 





THE HORSE. 



There is no nobler animal than the horse. He 
is strong and will draw a heavy load, or carry a 
burden on his back. He is active, and can travel 
at either a slow or a rapid gait. He is graceful in 
form and movement ; he is intelligent and easily 
trained ; he is kind in disposition ; of long life and 
great endurance, and for ages past has served man 
both in time of peace and war. 

No animal deserves kinder treatment, and yet 
many horses are much abused. 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 9 

A farmer could not well raise crops or do other 
work on the farm without horses. They are also 
much used in the cities. 

Horses are a source of pleasure, too, as well as 
profit. Who does not enjoy driving a spirited 
team ? How delightful, also, to ride through the 
fields on the back of a good traveler ! 

Earth makes the best floor for the stable. A 
plank floor is too hard. A horse will tire standing 
on a plank floor; the feet will grow tender, and 
the limbs become swollen. If possible, the horse 
should have a fresh bed of clean straw every night. 
Most horses like to be curried or rubbed with a 
cloth or a soft brush. 

The animaFs body should be kept as clean and 
free from dirt as possible. A clean stall and 
wholesome food go far toward keeping a horse in 

good health. 

2. 

A horse should be given plenty of hay and some 
grain each day. An occasional change in food 
may improve his health and appetite. In changing 
from one kind of o-rain to another, care will be 
necessary that too much grain is not given at one 
time. 

The hay that a horse eats should be as free 
from dust as possible, because musty or dusty hay 



lo Elements of Agriculture. 

is injurious and will produce a disease called 
" heaves." Wild or prairie hay is desirable food, 
because it is usually free from dust. Timothy hay 
is excellent and is very generally used. When at 
hard labor a horse needs more grain than when 
not working ; but he requires plenty of hay, 
whether at work or at rest. 

Impure water is even more injurious than impure 
food. Food and water should be given at regular 
intervals. The horse that is not fed or watered at 
regular intervals is likely to overeat or overdrink. 
Overeating may result in what is called a grain 
founder. Overdrinking may result in a water 
founder. A horse may also be foundered if he 
is fed or watered when he is too warm. When 
foundered he will show lameness and a stiffness 
in the limbs. 



1. About how many ears of corn should be given 

to a horse at one feed when he is being 
worked or used ? 

2. How many if he is not being worked ? 

3. Should you give as many large ears at one 

time as you would small ones ? 

4. Should you feed a small horse as many ears 

as you would a large one ? 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 1 1 

5. Why not feed a horse corn that has the husks 

on ? 

6. What care should be observed in putting hay 

into a manger ? 

7. About what quantity of oats should be given 

at one time ? 

8. What is " chopped " food or chop ? 

9. How much chop should be given at one time ? 

10. Why give chopped food when the horse's teeth 

get sore or short ? 

11. Why should the bridle not be left on when 

the horse is fed ? 

12. Do all horses drink well with bridle bits in 

their mouths ? 

13. Why is it sometimes dangerous to water a 

healthy horse at a public watering trough } 

14. Why should a leaden pipe never be used in 

conveying water for man or beast to drink ? 

15. How often should a horse have water and 

food ? 

16. Draw the plan of your barn at home. 

1 7. Draw another convenient plan. 

18. Show the convenient features of each plan. 

19. What should be the length, width, and height 

. of a stall for one horse ? 

20. Why should the stall be so much higher than 

the horse ? 



Elements of Agriculture. 



LESSON III. 

THE HORSE {Continued). 
I. 

Sometimes a horse is made lame in sboeine. 
The shoe may be too narrow at the heel and cause 
the hoof to bind ; or it may be too small for the 
hoof, producing fever and lameness ; or in putting 
on a shoe, a nail may split and one part may go too 
far up into the hoof. 




SruT Horseshoe Xails. 

A shoe that is too heavy tires the horse and may 
injure the hoof. Shoes should not remain too long 
on the hoof after any shoeing, because the hoof is 
constantly growing and in a few weeks will out- 
grow the shoe. 

Care, too, should be observed in adjusting the 
harness. If the collar is too tight, the horse cannot 
breathe well ; he will experience a sense of choking 
and will soon fag; he will have less endurance than 
he would have if he could breathe freely. A collar 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. i 3 

that is too tight will pinch the neck and injure the 

shoulder. Injury to the shoulder may result also 

from the use of a collar that is too loose. 

A collar that fits in the spring, when the horse is 

in good flesli, may be so large as to require the use 

of a collar pad after the animal has been worked 

for a few weeks and has lost flesh. Swaney is an 

injury to the shoulder most commonly attributed to 

the use of a collar that is too large ; this injury, 

however, may also be produced by a sprain, a bruise, 

hard usage, etc. 

2. 

Every horse has a certain swing of the head as he 
travels. If reined too high, he loses the free use 
and swing of the head, and cannot see so well 
where to step ; traveling then becomes more tire- 
some. 

Laborers do not wear tight clothing on any part 
of the body, but dress so that they will have the 
use of every limb, and so that no muscle will be 
bound or placed in a strained position. A horse 
should be so harnessed that every muscle may be 
brought into free use and so that no part of the 
harness will obstruct breathing, or circulation, or 
movement of limb. 

If a "blind " bridle is used, the ''blinds " should 
not be so drawn together as to shut out the light 



14 Elements of Agriculture. 

and the fresh air from the eyes. Blinds that fit too 
closely over the eyes will heat them in warm 
w^eather and produce disease and even blindness. ^ 

An easy bit should be used in the bridle. For 
horses wdth tender mouths, a bit covered with 
rubber is recommended by many, especially for 
winter use. If a raw iron bit is used in cold 
weather, it should always be warmed before it is 
put into the horse's mouth. A cold bit is very 
painful to the mouth and will produce ulcers. 

In hitching a team of horses to a vehicle, the 
following order should be observed : — 

First, properly snap or fasten all the line checks 
to the bridle bits. The lines once arranged, the 
neck yoke should be put on, and the tongue of the 
vehicle raised and fastened. Lastly, the tugs or 
traces are to be hooked or fastened. This order is 
reversed in unhitching. In hitching a team, it is 
best to examine all fastenings, to make sure that 
everything is in readiness, before the team is 
started. 



1. In unhitching, why should the tugs be loosened 

before the checks of the lines are unsnapped ? 

2. Why unhook the tugs before letting down the 

tongue ? 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 15 

3. Why should all parts of the harness be firm and 

well fastened? 

4. Why should the lines never be tied to a wheel 

of the vehicle to which the team is hitched ? 

5. Why should very heavy vehicles be provided 

with a lock or break? (Give three reasons.) 

6. WHiy not keep the harness in the stall near the 

horse ? 

7. Should harness ever be oiled ? 

8. Give some precautions to be observed in the 

use of a team. 



1 6 Elements of Agriculture. 



LESSON IV. 

AMONG THE POULTRY. 
I. 

Joe Bell and his sister Kate are industrious chil- 
dren. They take pleasure in raising poultry. Mr. 
and Mrs. Bell encourage them in this work, and 
provide them with books and papers which teach 
them how to care for fowls of every kind. 

It is said that the poultry and eggs of our coun- 
try bring more money than do all the horses, mules, 
and sheep together. 

The proceeds from the sale of poultry, which Joe 
and Kate raise, add much to the income of Mr. and 
Mrs. Bell, and the children are glad to know that 
they are helpful to their parents. 

They began with a few chickens. Now they 
have as many as they can care for. At first they 
knew little about the care of poultry, but they have 
learned much, and find that there is yet much for 
them to learn. 

They have learned that there are many varieties 
of chickens : that some varieties are large, and 
others are small ; that some have flesh that is fine 
in texture and of sweet and delicate flavor ; that the 
flesh of others is coarse, and may not have an agree- 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 



17 



able flavor ; that some varieties are wild and refrac- 
tory; that others are tamer, and more easily managed; 
and that some varieties produce more eggs than 
others. 

Kate says that she thinks the best variety is the 
one that combines the good qualities of all. 




The Henhouse. 



Kate and Joe agree that the henhouse should be 
well kept. They frequently dash the walls with 
hot water, and sometimes with coal oil and dilute 
carbolic acid ; and occasionally Mr. Bell fumigates 
the building for them. 

To do this he puts a handful of sulphur in an 
iron vessel kept for that purpose, and placing this 
in the henhouse, after all the fowls have been 
driven out and the windows have been closed, he 
sets fire to the sulphur, and then very quickly 



1 8 Elements of Agriculture. 

goes out and closes the door behind him. The 
smoke and fumes from the burning sulphur fill 
all parts of the building and kill any insects that 
may be in it. 

After a few hours he opens the doors and win- 
dows and allows the fresh air to pass through be- 
fore the fowls enter. He is very careful not to 
breathe any of the smoke or fumes, and to leave 
the henhouse the moment he sets fire to the sul- 
phur. Joe thinks that he will be old enough in a 
few years to do this work himself. 

Kate frequently sprinkles well-slaked lime about 
the henhouse and yard ; this is good for the health 
of the fowls. 

Mr. Bell has given Joe some tools, and with these 
he has made screens for the windows, so that he 
can safely ventilate the henhouse at night in warm 
weather. He has also made coops of such boxes, 
boards, and slats as he could get. 

With a little help and advice from his father, Joe 
has built a long row of nests with tight board 
covers. 

Mrs. Bell assists Kate in taking care of the hens 
while they are sitting, and of the little chicks while 
they are young. 

Kate likes to feed, water, and care for the fowls. 
She gives them soft food in the morning, and grain 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 19 

or hard food in the evening. She has read that 
fowls thrive better when fed in this way, especially 
in the winter time. Chickens need plenty of pure 
water to drink ; milk is wholesome for them. 

Kate never gives oats to any of the fowls. She 
has been told that the sharp points on the grain 
hinder digestion. At times she feeds them with 
some fat meat, or with some liver when she can get 
this for them. She has learned that fowls Hke sun- 
flower seed, the seed of sorghum, Kafifir corn, millet, 
Hungarian wheat, corn, and other grain. Most 
fowls are fond of fruit, but fruit does not fatten 
them rapidly. 

J' 

Note. — Comparison of the value of the poultry, eggs, and 

feathers with the value of the horses, mules, sheep, and wool 

shipped from one state of the Union in one year, as shown by 
report of the Commissioner of Labor : — 

Poultry, 70,081,267 pounds, value, $4,905,689 

Eggs, 33.935.325 dozen, " 3,393^533 

Feathers, 439,172 pounds, '' 197,637 

Total " $8,496,859 

Horses and Mules, 89,849 head, value, $3,961,442 

Sheep, 462,406 " " 1,757,154 

Wool, 3,179,297 pounds, " 735>859 

Total " $6,454,455 



20 



Elements of Agriculture. 



LESSON V. 



^^.y, , ^ . ^_^^y j^.^^,^,_^^^^ ^ ^_^;^^ ^^^^^^ yy v>? / ^y.. AA^.^m^ 



^4- 





A Convenient House and Yard. 



AMONG THE POULTRY {Continued). 



Mr. Bell has a small plot of ground with a high, 
close fence around it ; the henhouse opens into 
this plot from one side, and from the other side 
it opens into a larger plot of ground. When the 
weather is fair, Joe and Kate allow the fowls to 
" range " in the large plot. Here they chase grass- 
hoppers, or scratch for crickets and worms. 

The little chicks like to get out in the large lot, 
and it is amusing to watch them as they toddle 
after the mother hen, or scamper to her when she 
finds a sweet morsel and calls to them. 

When a hawk comes near, the mother hen, or 
perhaps the rooster, gives a peculiar cry, — the 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 21 

danger alarm, — and then all the fowls run to a 
clump of shrubs and vines for protection. The 
chicks spread their wings and run as fast as their 
Httle legs can carry them, for they, too, know the 
danger cry. When a storm threatens, the fowls 
are hurried into the small lot, where they find 
shelter, and where the chicks may be kept warm 
and dry. 

During cold weather Joe keeps some straw or 
hay in the small lot, and into this he throws the 
food. The hens scratch in the straw for the food, 
and in this way they get exercise. Joe thinks that 
the fowls have better health, and that the hens lay 
more eggs when they have plenty of exercise. 

In the small lot he has also an old barrel, with 
warped staves and cracks between them. In the 
fall he fills this with dry sand and ashes. From 
this barrel the fowls get gravel to eat and ashes 
and sand in which to dust themselves. 

Two or three times a year, and before Mr. Bell 
fumigates the henhouse, Joe takes all the old straw 
from the nests and from the lot, -and Kate scatters 
slaked lime and sprinkles coal oil about the 
premises. Insects frequently kill poultry, and great 
care must be taken to keep the buildings and fowls 
free from them. Fowls are also subject to various 
diseases which care may prevent or cure. 



2 2 Elements of Agriculture. 

The rat is a dangerous enemy to poultry. There 
are various methods of trapping it ; and when one 
method fails, another may succeed. Minks and 
weasels, too, sometimes create havoc in a poultry 
yard, killing many fowls in a single night. There 
are still other enemies to contend against, and it 
is only by care and close attention that all members 
of a brood are raised. 

Joe and Kate are learning more and more each 
year about poultry and its care, and soon they hope 
to raise successfully the best varieties known. 

2. 

1. How many toes has a chicken ? 

2. Which domestic fowls are scratchers and which 

are swimmers ? 

3. What is the difference betw^een the toes and 

feet of the two classes ? 

4. What is the difference between the bills or 

beaks of the two classes ? . 

5. Are fowls animals .f* 

6. Are all animals fowls ? 

7. Name two ways in which feathers are useful 

to fowls. 

8. Name three uses people make of feathers. 

9. What marked difference is there betw^een the 

bones of fowls and the bones of other 
animals ? 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 23 

10. Describe the end of the tongue of a fowl or 

bird. 

11. Compare the size and color of the eggs of a 

few fowls. 

12. Why handle hens with special care, and work 

gently with them, when they are sitting on 
eggs, or while they are raising a brood ? 

13. In setting a hen, why sprinkle a little finely 

powdered tobacco in the nest ? 

14. Why repeat this occasionally while the hen 

is sitting ? 

15. When a fowl is in good health, what color 

are the comb and gills ? 

16. Give several reasons why it is beneficial 

for fowls to range, both in wanter and 
in summer, w^henever the weather will 
permit. 

17. What evidence may be given that tends to 

prove that fowls have language, or means of 
communicating with one another ? 

18. What benefit do chickens derive from taking 

dust baths ? 

19. Do any fowls or birds take water baths ? 

20. Do any take both dust and water baths ? 



24 Elements of Agriculture. 

Following are some varieties of fowls : — 

Chickens. 

Bantam. — Variously colored ; very small ; eggs small. 
Brahma. — (i) Light. (2) Dark. Very large ; legs feathered ; 

good layers ; eggs large ; good flesh. 
Cochin. — {\) Black. (2) White. (3) Buff. (4) Partridge. 

All large ; legs feathered ; good layers ; eggs large ; very 

hardy ; good flesh. 
Plymouth Rock. — (i) Barred. (2) White. Large; good layers ; 

eggs large. 

Turkeys. 

Mammoth Bronze. — Very large ; bright bronze color ; good 

flesh. 
White. — Large; good flesh. 
Black. — Small ; hardy ; good flesh. 

Geese. 

Gray Toulouse. — Very large ; lay about forty eggs in a season ; 

flesh coarse and flabby. 
White Embden. — Snow white ; very large ; blue eyes ; fltsh- 

colored bill ; feet yellow or orange ; lay about twenty 

eggs in a season. 
Gray African. — Very large; very rapid growers; lay about forty 

eggs in a season; excellent flesh; very desirable variety. 
Gray Wild. — Medium to large ; hardy ; good layers ; excellent 

flesh ; desirable variety. 

Ducks. 

White Pekin. — Very large ; rapid growers ; lay from one hundred 
to one hundred and thirty eggs in a season ; yellow bill ; 
blue eyes ; hardy ; flesh excellent ; very desirable variety. 



Domestic Animals and Fowls. 25 

White Aylesbury.^ Very large ; mature early ; blue eyes ; flesh- 
colored bill ; very hardy ; desirable variety. 

Colored Rouen. — Medium to large ; head of good form, with rich, 
green plumage ; resemble Mallard duck ; slow growth ; 
hardy. 

B/ack C(7v//i,'-^.— Medium to large ; dark, hazel eyes ; grow rapidly ; 
lay from eighty to ninety eggs in a season ; hardy. 



CHAPTER II. 

IN THE HOUSE, IN THE GARDEN, AND IN 
THE STORE. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

While men are in a savage state they do not 
build liomes. The wide world is their home, and 
they roam from place to place warring with each 
other, and are almost as wild as the animals they 
hunt for food. As they become civilized they build 
a place in which to live, and which our Anglo-Saxon 
forefathers have named home. 

Twelve hundred years ago these very Anglo- 
Saxons, from whom we are descended, lived in rude 
huts built of sticks bound together at the top. The 
floors were of earth, sometimes covered with grass 
and leaves. Their y^;/^ homes had the bark pulled 
from the poles. When we think of such homes, 
and compare them with the good homes that we 
live in at the present time, we find that our race 
has learned much in these hundreds of years. 

To learn to care for our homes properly will 
mark one of the sweetest pages in the history of 
our lives. All that is brightest and best belongs to 

26 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 27 

home. The care of the rooms in which we read 
and think ; of the table around which we gather ; 
of the parlor where song, and story add to the charm 
of Hfe — this care is a labor of love that small 
hands can do, and it belongs to the lessons of life. 

Then there is the yard where the roses and the 
honeysuckles grow ; the garden with its good things 
for every season ; and tlie orcliard where the apple 
trees bloom and the brown thrush and oriole sing 
their sweetest songs. The farmer's boys and girls 
may be happy and useful here. There is a joy in 
all of these things. 

To learn to do work well is no little thino^. 
People in tlie past have helped us by writing about 
better ways of doing things. Let us help the whole 
world by learning to do these things better. 



28 Elements of Agriculture. 

LESSON VI. 

HELPING MOTHER. 
I. 

" Mother, dear, you have so much to do ! Will 
you let me help you in some way ? " 

" Thank you, my child, I should be very glad if 
you would wipe the dishes for me. Do you think 
you can ? " 

" I am sure I can if you will show me a little 
about it." 

" First, then, you may wipe these glasses. See, I 
dip them side wise into these hot suds. Take this 
clean dry cloth and wipe them before they get cold. 
Give them a good polish and put them on the shelf 
upside down so that they may not get dusty inside. 

" Now I will wash the spoons and lay them in 
the draining-pan. I will pour hot water over them 
and you must pick them out as best you can. The 
hot water gives them a fine polish. But you must 
be careful not to put the dishes into such hot water. 
It would ' check ' them and perhaps break them." 

" Why do you handle the cups and saucers so 
carefully, mother ? " 

" So that I shall not break them. It is very easy 
to chip the edges of dishes. Each piece should be 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 29 

washed separately. Never pile up the dishes in the 
dish-pan, or try to carry too many at a time." 




The Dining Room. 



" Does it injure knives, too, if they are placed in 
hot water ? You are washing those in water that 
is not very warm." 



3© Elements of Agriculture. 

" These are steel knives, and the heat is not good 
for the metal or the handles. You see I am not 
putting the handles into the water at all. I wipe 
them with a damp cloth. Now T must rub the 
blades with a little polishing brick dust and rinse 
them once more. There they are, ready for you to 
wipe. 

" Now wash out your drying cloth in clean cold 
water and hang it near the stove. I will put the 
dishes away while you wipe the top of the table. 
You have helped me very much this morning. 
Should you like to try again to-morrow." 

" Yes, mother, I want to help you. I want to 
learn to do various kinds of work." 

" Now I have polished the stove, and when I have 
swept the floor the kitchen will be in order." 



1. How often may knives be polished.^ 

2. What materials are required in polishing them ? 

3. Describe the process. 

4. How often should the kitchen stove be pol- 

ished ? 

5. What are the bad results of spilling water on 

the kitchen stove when the stove is hot ? 

6. Why not pile up the dishes in the dish-pan or 

try to carry too many at a time ? 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 31 

7. Why first wasli the dishes that have the least 

grease on them ? 

8. Why not place dishes on a very hot stove ? 

9. Why not place dishes near the edge of the 

table as you wash or dry them ? 
10. Draw a plan of your kitchen and dining room. 




Note. — A working modelis here given. In drawing original 
plans, give special attention to light and to convenience in arrange- 
ment. 

3- 
Father says : — 

" Unless you are saving and careful and neat, 

You must not expect much good fortune to 

meet." 

Mother says : — 

" Cleanliness is next to Godliness." 



32 Elements of Agriculture. 



LESSON VII. 

HELPING MOTHER {^Continued). 



" I learned much yesterday about taking care of 
dishes. Will you teach me something more to-day 
about housework ? " 

" Yes, I am ready to put the house in order and 
need your help. We shall begin by opening this 
room so that more sunlight may come in, and the 
draft may help to take away the dust. Plenty of 
sunlight and fresh air are essential to health and 
happiness. 

" Dust clings to some kinds of furniture and is 
not easily removed. We shall take such pieces into 
the next room, or cover them before beginning 
to sweep. As soon as I have finished sweeping, I 
will show you how to dust. 

" We shall use these clean, soft cloths in dusting. 
They will not scratch or injure the furniture. Rub 
the woodwork lightly, first the upper window sash 
and casing, the doors and door casings, the tallest 
pieces first, beginning at the top and dusting toward 
the bottom. 

" When the cloth gets dusty, take it to the open 
door and shake the dust from it. A cloth slightly 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 



33 



dampened removes the dust readily, but the damp- 
ness sometimes injures the polish of the furniture. 

" A dampened broom may prevent some dust 
from rising at the time of sweeping, but its frequent 
use will soil the carpet by causing the dust to ad- 
here to and penetrate the fabric. 

" We shall now sweep and dust another room 
while this one is airing, and later we shall replace 
and rearrange the furniture." 





2. 


adhere, . . 


to stick to. 


penetrate, . 


to enter, to settle into. 


remove, . . 


to take off, to take away. 


readily, . . 


easily. 


fabric, . . 


cloth. 


essential, . 


necessary. 


replace, . . 


to take back, to place again. 



rearrange, to change position of, to arrange again. 

3. FURNITURE. 

A principal piece for living room. 

Material from which this piece is made. 

Some of the styles in which it is made. 

Different methods of fastening parts together. 

Kinds of finish and materials used in finishins:. 

Care of this piece. 

Give sketch or drawing of this piece. 



34 Elements of Agriculture. 

LESSON VIII. 

GRANDFATHER'S GARDEN. 
I. 

" Grandfather has the best garden ! You should 
see it ; there is scarcely a weed to be found in it. 
The plot of ground is not large, but it is very pro- 
ductive. He has loads of fertilizer hauled and 
scattered over it every fall, and that may account 
for its fertility, but I think that the way in which 
he cultivates it has something to do with his 
success. 

" The garden beds are about four feet wide and 
are not very high. Grandfather can reach the center 
of a narrow bed from either side, and can hoe or 
pull the weeds out without stepping on the bed. 
He does not make a high bed, because the earth 
gets dry more quickly when raised than when left 
more nearly on a level with the surroundinor earth. 
When making the bed he stretches a line and 
makes the edges straight. He does the same when 
he makes little furrows in which to plant seed. 

" During the summer and fall he gathers nearly 
all the seed he desires for the following spring. He 
puts these carefully into strong package envelopes 
and labels them. Then he puts the packages into 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 35 

a poke and hangs it where the mice will not 
destroy its contents. 

" When he plants more than one variety of the 
same kind of seed, he separates one from the other 
by planting the seed of a different plant between 
them, so that the varieties will remain pure. 

" I often go over to grandfather's and help 
him. He tells me many things about garden 
plants and vegetables. He tells me at what 
depth to plant the seed, the number to plant in 
a ' hill,' how to cultivate the various kinds of 
plants, and explains other useful and interesting 
things about the garden and the many vegetables 
that grow in it. 

" Once he told me of the many kinds of beans 
he had raised, — butter beans, white beans, pole 
beans, lima beans, bunch beans, the funny ' cut- 
shorts,' and many other varieties ; also when and 
how to plant and cultivate these ; of their yield, 
their manner of growing, and the kinds of soil in 
which they grow best. 

" Butter beans are grandmother's favorites, and 
grandfather always grows several hills of these. He 
plants climbers in rows, with the hills opposite 
each other, and from two to three feet apart. He 
has stakes or poles about six feet long for them 
to climb. He drives one of these stakes into the 



36 



Elements of Agriculture. 



vine. 



jo^round at each hill soon after the plants begin to 
He calls this sticking the beans. 
He slants the poles in such a way that the 
top of two from one row 
and of two from the oppo- 
site row will meet or cross. 
He ties the tops of the four 
together so that they stand 
firm and wdll not blow down 
after the vines are well 
started. I like to help him 
stick the beans. I call it 
' making wigwams.' 

" After the beans are 
gathered, he ties the poles 
in a bundle and puts them 
into a shed where they will 

keep dry and will be ready for use another year. 

He says that the soil should be moderately rich 

for the best production of beans." 




Beans and Poles. 



" There are as many varieties of a* number of other 
vegetables as of beans, and as wide a difference 
in the kinds of soil in wiiich they grow best, and 
in the methods of planting and caring for them. 
There are many kinds of tomatoes, some being 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 37 

large, flat, and rough, while others are large, round, 
and smooth ; some are small and round, some are 
white, and some are red. Grandfather says that they 
were all small and round at one time; they grew 
wild, and for many years were not used as food ; but 
finally their worth became known, and cultivation 
brought about the differences in size and form. 



\f^^-B^..=^^ 




A Good Hotbed. 



" Grandfather has a ' hotbed ' in w^hich he sprouts 
cabbage and tomato seed and sweet potatoes. This 
hotbed is a long, stout box, about two feet deep 
and three feet wide. It is partly filled with manure 
upon which a few buckets of water are thrown. 
This is covered with a rich soil, from three to five 
inches in depth, in which potatoes are placed, or 
seed planted. 

" The bed or box has a crlass door or a window 
sash, hinged at the top, so that it can be raised ; 
this is held up by being hooked to upright pieces 
nailed to the box for the purpose. It can be let 



38 Elements of Agriculture. 

down and the bed closed when it rains hard or 
when it threatens frost. 

" In this hotbed, seeds planted in the spring will 
sprout and grow much earlier than they would in 
the garden unprotected ; and when the spring is 
more advanced, the plants may be taken from the 
hotbed and placed in the garden, where hills or 
ridges have been prepared for them. 

" When only a few cabbage or tomato plants 
are wanted, grandfather says they can be easily 
sprouted by melting both ends from a few tin cans, 
setting the cans on a box or on a board, filling them 
with rich soil, and planting a few seed in each. 
Keep moist and in a warm place, or near a south 
window where they can get plenty of sunlight. 

" When the plants are large enough to transplant, 
pull out the weak ones, leaving one or two strong 
ones in each can. Rest the can on the hand, 
lower it to the place in the earth prepared for it, 
remove the hand from under the can, and fill in the 
earth around it. Then press down the earth in the 
can with one hand, and with the other pull the can 
from the earth. This leaves the plants in place, 
and they continue to grow without interruption. 
Ten or twelve tomato plants grown in this way 
should produce several bushels of tomatoes. 

" Cabbage or tomato plants may also be grown 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 39 

in small boxes or pans, partly filled with rich soil, 
and kept in a warm place." 

3. NOTES. 

1. All plants are vegetable. A part or the whole 

of a plant used chiefly for food is called a 
Vegetable. Plants that are commonly grown 
in gardens, and used as food, are called veg- 
etables. Those used chiefly for flavoring 
are often called garden herbs. 

2. Some garden vegetables are grown for the seed 

that they produce, as the pea, bean, etc. 
Others are grown for their leaves, as cabbage 
and lettuce. Some produce bulbs. The 
onion is a good example of a bulb-producing 
plant. . The potato plant is grown for the 
tubers that it produces. A tuber is a modi- 
fied form of the stem of a plant, — a thick- 
ened root stock. The turnip, beet, radish, 
parsnip, etc., are the enlarged roots of those 
plants. The celery plant has a fleshy leaf 
stock that is much relished by many people. 

3. The potato supplies large quantities of starch, 

and the beet is the source of much of the 
sugar of commerce. Starch and sugar are 
principal food substances required by ani- 
mals and supplied by plants. 



40 Elements of Agriculture. 

4. Potatoes, beets, onions, and other vegetables 

are in some localities grown in large quanti- 
ties as field products. 

5. Experiment. Plant some corn, wheat, bean, and 

pumpkin seed. Which come through the 
ground as a single spear or leaf? 
Which show two leaves on first appearance } 
A third difference between the young plants '^. 

6. ExperimeJit. (i) Measure the distance between 

the leaves of a pumpkin vine ; also the 
difference between the blades of a stalk of 
wheat at different times. 

Which shows a difference in the distance 
between the leaves ? Draw conclusions as 
to the way in which each grows. 

(2) Cut a section from the stem of each, and 
note difference between them. 

7. Experiment. Note the direction in which a 

bean vine twines. Try to train the vine to 
twine in the opposite direction. What is 
the result of your efforts ? Note the direction 
in which some other vines twine. 

8. Experiment. Place a plant in a dark room 

or cellar and note change of color in the 
plant. Draw conclusions. 

9. Experiment. Place a plant under water. Note 

results and draw conclusions. 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 41 

LESSON IX. 

GRANDFATHER^S GARDEN (^Continued). 

I. 

" Do you know that birds can help to take care 
of a garden ? 

" Well, they can, and I will tell you how. You 
probably know that worms sometimes injure cab- 
bage, tomatoes, and other garden vegetables. Last 
summer when I was at grandfather's, he showed me 
a robin's nest in a tree near the house. The mother 
bird had recently hatched a brood of four little 
robins. 

" Grandfather said that these young birds were 
valuable to him. I soon understood what he 
meant ; for while we talked, the mother bird came 
flying home, and I could see that she carried some- 
thinor in her bill. The little birds stretched their 
necks and opened their mouths wide, and they all 
seemed to say, ' We are so glad you have brought 
us somethinof to eat.' 

" When the mother bird had fed them what she 
had brought, grandfather asked me to go with him 
and sit on the bench under the old sweet apple tree. 
From that spot we could see both the nest and the 
garden. Presently the mother bird flew from the 



42 Elements of Agriculture. 

nest to the garden fence, and then with a cluck and 
jerk of the head she sprang to the ground and was 
soon among the plants. 

" She hopped from plant to plant and would curi- 
ously turn her head to get a better view^ of the 
leaves as she examined them from above and below. 
We saw her pull something from a leaf and strike 
with her bill a few times against the ground. 
Grandfather said she was killing the worm she had 
found. She then flew to the nest, and again the 
young birds made queer sounds, stretched their 
necks, and held their mouths wide open. 

" For a long time we sat there and watched the 
mother bird gather food for the brood. Grand- 
father said that she and her mate would work in 
this way for hours, and I was not surprised that he 
placed a high value upon these birds and their little 
ones." 

2. 

" I laughed heartily when grandfather told me 
that he had some pet birds out in the pasture that 
helped him take care of the stock. Grandmother 
laughed too, and said that grandfather called all the 
birds about the place his pets. 

" But when we went to the pasture for the cow^s, 
sure enough, we saw some small blackbirds among 
the cattle, and they were indeed busy. Some would 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 43 

fly and light on a cow's back, where they would 
catch the small black flies they found; others- 
would dart from the ground and catch larger ones 
while on the wing. 

" It was evident that grandfather was pleased 
with these ' pets,' as he called them. 

" There were also many meadow larks in the 
pasture. Grandfather said that they were catching 
bugs and worms, and that in the course of a season 
they would, no doubt, destroy a great many thou- 
sand insects. 

" The sun w^as low in the west. The swallows 
were flying about in search of food. Soon some 
bats appeared. They darted about very swiftly, and 
their rubberlike wings made not the least sound in 
the air. Grandfather said that while the birds sleep, 
these queer creatures catch insects that fly by 
night. 

" As we sat on the porch that night enjoying the 
cool and pleasant breeze, we could plainly hear the 
low buzz of insect wings, and the drowsy hum of 
insect life, and grandfather told me of the many 
birds that prey upon insects and destroy them. He 
said that even the little bird we call the ' sap sucker' 
is very valuable in an orchard ; and that if I should 
see this little bird climbing a limb and pecking 
upon it in various places as it hopped along, I 



44 Elements of Agriculture. 

might know that it was in search of the eggs of 
insects, and of worms that were on the Hmb or 
beneath the bark. 

" When orandfather told me of a warbler which 
sang to him for many seasons, but now sings no 
more, his voice trembled, and I could see that he 
was sad. It was a brown thrush, or as he sometimes 
called it, his brown mocking bird. For years it 
nested, with its mate, in an old apple tree in a part 
of the orchard farthest from the house. 




A Brown Thrush. 

" On clear evenings, just before the sun went 
down, the brown thrush would perch upon the 
highest branch of a maple, just behind the house, 
and such warbling and trilling! If Rover barked, 
he would imitate ; if a quail whistled, he would cry 
' bob white ' in answer. From tones soft and low, 
he would pass to the highest and clearest notes of 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 45 

the feathered tribe, or into the tenderest strains of 
the sweetest songsters. 

" Grandfather and grandmother miss his warbhng 
now. The following day we strolled out to the old 
apple tree. I saw there a little mound of earth. 
They did not say it was the grave of poor Brown 
Thrush, but I think it must have been. 

"Other songsters have come to take his place, and 
I think my grandparents will soon learn to love 
these almost as well as they loved Brown Thrush." 




46 



Elements of Agriculture. 



LESSON X. 




HELPING IN THE STORE. 



Many boys and girls like to spend their vacation 
working in a store. They feel that in this way they 
can earn something and thus be helpful to their 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 47 

parents; and the parents feel that the training and 
the knowledge of business gained while thus em- 
ployed may be helpful to their children. There are 
numerous light duties about the store that a willing 
boy or girl can do, and many merchants are on the 
lookout for help. 

One of the first qualifications that they demand 
is honesty. Merchants know that those w^hom they 
employ must be honest, not only with their em- 
ployer, but also with all w4io trade in the store. 
The merchant who is not honest, or who keeps help 
that is not honest, must know that the public will find 
this out, and that he will soon lose his credit and 
his good name ; and for this, if for no other reason, 
honesty becomes a question of first importance. 

Honesty is the surest road to wealth and happi- 
ness. Dishonesty is the shortest and surest road to 
ruin and disgrace. 

Neither do merchants like to keep in their employ 
those who are not industrious, or those w^ho take 
little or no interest in the work of the store. Wait- 
ing on customers is not the only work to be per- 
formed. Frequently sweeping and dusting are to 
be done ; lamps are to be cleaned and filled ; win- 
dows to be w^ashed ; goods to be displayed ; and the 
store is to be kept in order. 

Merchants are quick to observe ; and when those 



48 Elements of Agriculture. 

whom they employ manifest an interest in the busi- 
ness, — when they are prompt and careful, attentive 
and earnest, — it is noted, and they are placed in 
line of promotion. 

In every store there is more or less dust. Certain 
goods and cases should be covered before the floor 
is swept. Some articles are frail, and care will be 
required in covering and uncovering them, to avoid 
injury. 

Dusting should be done either after or before 
business hours. Certain furniture and cases should 
be rubbed with a dry cloth only, because dampness 
injures some furniture and goods. Shelves, as well 
as cases and counters, should be kept free from dust. 

When lamps are used in the store, they should 

be put in order early in the day, before business 

hours. The wicks should be evenly trimmed ; for 

if they are not, the flame will be uneven or unsteady, 

and will smoke the chimney. After the bowl has 

been filled with oil, it should be dried by rubbing it 

with a cloth ; for if not dried, the dust will cling to 

it. The chimney should be thoroughly cleaned and 

well polished. This done, the lamps are put in 

place ready for use. 

2. 

All goods put on display in any part of the store 
should be tastefully arranged. Their position may 



In the House, Garden, and Store. 49 

be changed occasionally so that they may attract 
attention. In the store, as elsewhere, there should 
be a place for everything, and everything should 
be kept in its place. Goods taken from their places 
should be carefully arranged and replaced without 
unnecessary delay. Goods that are left lying on the 
counter are in the way, become soiled, and may be 
lost. For these and other reasons, the counters 
should be kept clear. 

When goods are sold, they should be carefully 
and neatly wrapped. There are some classes of 
goods that shoukl not be wrapped in the same 
package with other goods, but should be kept sepa- 
rate. Coal oil, for example, should not be placed 
near dry goods or groceries. 

It is well to open and close the door for those 
entering and leaving, especially for women and 
children. All those who come into the store should 
be kindly received and should be waited upon as 
promptly as conditions allow. It is best to finish 
waiting upon one customer before beginning to 
wait upon another. 

All who enter the store, or with whom you come 
in contact, should feel that they have been kindly 
and respectfully treated by you. 



[^o Elements of Agriculture. 



1. Is it necessary io wear fnie or costly clothing 

in order to secure employment in a store? 

2. Give two reasons \vh\- the clothing should be 

neat and clean, and not too expensive. 

3. Can one who is not truthful be honest ? 

4. Who are the happier, those who do sc^uething 

useful, ov those who do nothing? 

$ = dollar, ilolUirs. # or No. = number. 

^^ = cent, cents. M. = one thousand, 

acct. or % = account. (a^ = :it, to. 

C\C).n. = collect on delivery. <^, = care of, in care of. 

F.o.b. or f.o.b. = tree on board. Cr. == credit or creditor. 



PART II. 
CIlAPTin>l III. 

IN rilK COUN'rKV. 
iNiRonucriON. 

From the lonely cabin of the pioneer, devoid of 
comfort and convenience, is ex'olved tlie comnKxli- 
ous house of the })ros|)erous fanner. 

Upon the once unbroken stretch of prairie we 
nc)w see well-constructed buildings surrounded by 
a shady grove ; orchard trees covered with fragrant 
blossoms or bending under loads of luscious fruit; 
fields waxing with golden grain ; green pastures 
dotted with grazing herds. 

Seated at eventide where floats the fragrance of 
meadows and where the drowsy hum of bees is 
heard, — well may the thriftv farmer and his care- 
ful wife give thanks to llim who hath permitted 
their li\es to fall in pleasant places. 

Yet while humbU' grateful for their man\- bless- 
ings, well ma\' the\- \iew their surroundings with 
honest })ride. This transition from cabin to a 

51 



52 Elements of Agriculture. 

home of comfort and plenty is no accident. It is 
chiefly the result of their industry and care — of 
their intelligence and economy. 

Every process in successful farming is not only 
an object lesson in science, but an exhibition of 
human skill in working in harmony with nature's 
laws. The study of these laws and their applica- 
tion in production is not only profitable, but con- 
stitutes ^an intellectual pleasure of the highest 
order. To improve external conditions and to so 
adjust work that it shall harmonize with nature 
and her laws is a worthy vocation, — a delight- 
ful pursuit. Such is the vocation of the farmer. 



Farm Economy. 53 



LESSON XI. 

FARM ECONOMY. 
I. 

" Mother says I may go to Uncle Ben's to- 
morrow. I am glad, for if there is anywhere I like 
to go, it is to Uncle Ben's. You see, he lives on 
a fine farm ; he has cattle and horses and other 
stock, and I like to watch him feed them. 

" Then Aunt Ruth has so many good things to 
eat. In summer she has vegetables fresh from the 
garden and fruit from the orchard ; and in winter, 
such pumpkin pies and doughnuts ! 

" Father says it is no wonder Uncle Ben is rich, 
although he began life a poor man ; for both he 
and his wife are industrious workers and careful 
managers. 

" Aunt Ruth says it is not what people make, 
but what they save that makes them rich. 

" An example of her good management may be 
seen in her bread-making. She is careful not 
to mix more than she wants to bake ; and any 
bread that may be left after a meal, she uses in 
making milk toast, bread pudding, etc. In this 
way she provides a change and variety of food, and 
wastes nothing, either in flour or seasoning. She 



54 Elements of Agriculture. 

is just as economical with everything she cooks as 
she is with bread. She says, ' A careless and 
extravagant cook will throw enough out at the 
kitchen door to keep a family ! ' I think she is 
right about that. 

" As for the sewing she does, it seems to me she 
must get tired of sewing. She makes many gar- 
ments, and keeps all the clothing in good repair. 
Here is a saying of hers about mending and re- 
pairing: 'A stitch in time saves nine.'" 

2. 

" Uncle Ben is just as careful as Aunt Ruth. 
When he has harvested his hay, he always puts his 
mower in the shed, and oils the sickle well, so that 
it will not rust. He sets his plows near the door 
as he oils them and puts them in the shed, because 
they are the tools he will use first in the spring. 
He says abuse injures machinery more than use, 
and it must be true, because he has machines he 
has been using for a great many years, and they are 
almost as good as new. 

"He has o^ood sheds and barns for all his live 
stock. He thinks animals thrive better and require 
less food if they are sheltered from storm. He 
has told me that farmers would make more money 
by selling one or two animals and with the pro- 



Farm Economy. 55 

ceeds building sheds for the rest, than by trying 
to keep all their stock without protection. 

" He does not allow pieces of rails or boards to 
lie scattered about the premises, for these often 
have nails in them and endanger the stock. When 
an animal runs a nail into its foot, a disease known 
as lockjaw frequently results. Premises look neater 
and more attractive when kept free from rubbish, 
and are more convenient in many ways." 

3. 

" Uncle Ben has bins for the grain, too, and 
sheds for the hay. Grain and hay are injured when 
exposed to the weather; and by housing and shed- 
ding, enough is saved in a few years to more than 
pay for the bins and sheds. 

" When he has finished using a spade or a hoe, he 
scrapes or rubs all the dirt from it, and puts it in 
the shed where it will keep dry, and where he can 
find it when he wants to use it again. One can do 
more work, and can do it better and more easily, 
with bright, sharp tools than with dull, rusty ones. 
He saves time by putting tools in their places when 
he has finished using them ; for by so doing he 
wastes no minutes in hunting for them when he 
wants them. 

" Uncle Ben has a fish pond, too. In summer we 



56 Elements of Agriculture. 

catch some fine fish from it, and we have great sport 
skating on it in winter. 

" And there is a small stream near, with clumps 
of brush and trees along its course; In these thickets, 
many birds raise their young, and in the early morn- 
ing they make the air ring with their songs. My 
cousins and I have some favorite places along 
this stream, where we often go to play. If the 
weather is fine, we sometimes take our lunch and eat 
it in a grove. It is always a treat to go to Uncle 
Ben's." 



Farm Dairying. 57 



LESSON XII. 

FARM DAIRYING. 
I. 

" Uncle Ben takes great interest in caring for his 
cows. He says it pays better to keep a few cows 
and keep them well, than to poorly keep a large 
number. He has a warm shed for them and gives 
them plenty of nourishing food, and is careful to 
provide them w^ith pure water to drink. He does 
not allow the dog to chase them, nor does he strike 
or abuse them in any way. They know that he is 
kind to them. He can go to them and put his hand 
on them, even when they are out in the pasture ; 
and they will come to him when he calls them. 
He has a name for each, and each one know-s 
her name. None of them have horns. He thinks 
cattle do better without horns, and he has them 
all dehorned. 

" His cows are all registered, too. I do not know 
exactly what that means, but I think only stock of 
pure blood can be registered." 

2. 

" Uncle Ben does the milking, but Aunt Ruth 
helps him in caring for the milk and in making 



^8 Elements of Agriculture. 

butter. They seldom put milk in a wooden vessel. 
They prefer tin or stone vessels because it is easier 
to keep them clean and when thus kept they impart 
no bad taste to milk or cream. 

" After the milk is strained, Aunt Ruth washes 
the buckets and strainers in tepid or lukewarm 
water, wipes them dry with a perfectly clean cloth, 
and places them where they will get the air and sun. 
She treats all vessels and cans in which the milk is 
kept in this same careful manner, rubbing them well 
as she washes them and rinsing them in boiling 
water. 

" She uses the warm water first because hot water 
' curds ' the milk and causes it to cling to a vessel. 
The warm water washes the milk out, and the 
hot water kills any living germs that the warm 
water might not have removed. It is impossible 
to make good butter if the milk vessels are not kept 
entirely sweet, though to keep them so is no easy 
task. 

" Uncle Ben says that when the cream is skimmed 
from the milk, it should be placed in a jar; that it 
should not be allowed to stand too long in the jar 
and get too old before it is churned ; that it should 
not be kept too warm ; nor should it be scalded by 
the pouring of hot water into it while it is being 
churned. As soon as the churning is done and 



Farm Dairying. 59 

the butter cared for, Aunt Ruth treats the churn 
just as she does the other vessels; that is, she 
thoroughly cleans it by washing it with warm water, 
then rinsing it with hot water and placing it where 
it can get the air and sun. 

. " The churn should always be treated with hot 
water, and rinsed with cold water just before use. 
Uncle Ben does the churning, but Aunt Ruth pre- 
fers to take care of the churn and the milk vessels 
herself. 

" The butter they make is always in demand at 
good prices. It pays them to take pains. In fact, 
they work upon the principle that ' whatever is 
worth doing at all is worth doing well.' " 

3- 

" Uncle Ben has no machine or separator with 
which he can separate the cream from the milk, as 
some of his neighbors have, and for this reason he 
is obliged to strain the milk into cans and allow the 
cream to rise. He is planning to get a separator 
some day, and then he will get more cream from the 
milk than he gets now, and Aunt Ruth will not have 
so many cans to wash. 

" Years ago he kept the milk in crocks, and in 
wide, shallow pans. He concluded, however, that 
these shallow vessels took up too much room, and 



6o Elements of Agriculture. 

exposed too much milk surface to possible impuri- 
ties. Now, as soon as he milks he at once strains 
the milk into narrow, deep cans and sets them in a 
box partly filled with cold water. The box has a 
hole near the bottom through which he can let 
the water run out into a trough that carries it 
away. The box did not cost him very much, as he 
made it himself. He finds it very useful, for he has 
no spring water flowing through his milk house. 
The one box contains all the milk cans, and cools 
the milk thoroughly. 

"Uncle Ben says there are a great many 
' secrets ' in the care of milk, and in butter-making. 
By ' secrets ' I think he means facts that are not 
generally known, because he does not try to keep 
these facts to himself. 

" I am especially interested when he is telling 
about the tiny, living germs that are nearly always 
to be found in milk. Some of these germs, or bac- 
teria as he calls them, are needed for the ripening 
of cream, the flavor of the butter, etc. ; though too 
many may be harmful. He says that cream must 
sour before it is ready to be churned, and that it 
is the presence of bacteria that causes it to sour; 
but if it stands too long, too many bacterial germs 
will develop, and the butter will be bitter or 
' rancid.' 



Farm Dairying. 6i 

" In addition to the beneficial bacteria that are in 
milk, disease germs, or bacteria that are dangerous 
to health, are also frequently found. The usual 
sources of these disease bacteria are, — diseased 
cows ; uncleanliness in milking and in the stables in 
which the cows are kept ; and neglect to care prop- 
erly for the milk. 

" He says that no unhealthy cow's milk should be 
saved ; that the stable should be kept clean, and the 
cows well bedded ; and that any bits of dirt and 
loose hairs that may be clinging to them should be 
brushed or rubbed off before milking; that cleanli- 
ness in the stables and in milking is not only a 
health precaution, but usually removes the frequent 
cause of bad tasting milk, cream, and butter. 

"Since Uncle Ben explained to me that bacteria 
multiply rapidly in fresh, warm milk ; that cold is 
unfavorable to their development ; and that it is 
mainly these germs that cause milk, as well as 
cream, to sour; I understand why he always strains 
the milk and sets it to cool as quickly as he can 
after milking. And since he further explained to 
me that milk readily absorbs odors, I understand 
why he never keeps vegetables or fresh meats in the 
milk house or near the milk. 

" He prefers to keep milk at a temperature of 
from forty-five to fifty degrees Fahrenheit ; this 



62 Elements of Agriculture. 

retards the increase of bacteria, and in this way 
helps to keep the milk sweet ; and he thinks the 
cream rises better if the milk is cool. The milk 
should not be frozen, however, because cream can- 
not rise through frozen milk. 

"As Uncle Ben skims the cream from the milk 
he puts it into a jar and keeps it cool and sweet, just 
as he does the milk, until he has saved enough for 
churning. Then he ' ripens ' or sours it ; that is, he 
warms it to a temperature of sixty to seventy degrees 
Fahrenheit, and keeps it at this temperature for some 
hours, until it is pleasantly sour to the taste. He 
then cools the cream again before he churns it. 

" Uncle Ben says that the butter we eat is con- 
tained in warm milk in the form of oil, and in cream 
in the form of litde specks or globules, commonly 
called butter fat ; and that churning the cream causes 
these fat globules to strike against each other, and 
in striking each other they adhere and form grains 
of butter. The quality of butter produced depends 
to a considerable extent, he says, upon the way in 
which the cream is churned. For this reason he is 
particular as to the kind of churn he uses. 

" He prefers the common swing churn, or the 
plain revolving barrel churn without inside fixtures, 
because such churns may be kept sweet and clean 
with little difficulty, and he thinks they give a better 



Farm Dairying. 63 

concussion to the globules of butter fat, and hence 
produce a greater quantity of butter from a given 
quantity of cream than can be secured by using a 
churn with a dasher, revolving paddles, or other in- 
side fixtures. Any fixtures that strike the grains of 
butter tend to injure its texture, and in that way 
may injure its quality. 

" Churning should not be continued until the 
butter solidifies, that is, until it forms into a body, 
or even into large lumps, but should cease when the 
butter shows in grains or lumps about the size of 
peas. If churning is continued too long after the 
butter forms, or if the butter is worked too much in 
removing the buttermilk or in distributing the salt, 
the grain or texture will be injured, and it w^ll have 
a greasy appearance. 

" When Uncle Ben takes the butter from the 
churn he places it on the working-board and re- 
moves the buttermilk from it. To do this, he first 
dashes some cold w^ater upon it. If dashing water 
upon it once does not remove all the buttermilk, he 
works the butter a little and then washes it again. 
Water must not be used too freely, however, be- 
cause much washing takes the fiavor from it. 

" Uncle Ben thinks that coarse, or common salt, 
should not be used in salting butter. He uses 
none but table or sack salt for this purpose, because 



64 Elements of Agriculture. 

fine salt distributes with less working, and dissolves 
and salts more evenly than coarse salt does. 

" The butter properly salted, he forms it into neat 
rolls and puts them on plates in a cool place ready 
for use, or ready for the market." 



The Farmer's Friends. 65 

LESSON XIII. 
THE FARMERS FRIENDS — DO YOU KNOW US? 



(a) '' I am small but I am master of many birds 
that are larger than I. I build a nest of 
sticks, and line it with wool or lint, and 
prefer to build in the hollow of a rail or a 
post, or under a porch near a house. I 
am gray-brown in color. I destroy many 
insects in the course of a year. The last 
letter in my name is the first letter in the 
word ' name.' Guess my name." 



(d) " How I am feared by the feathered tribe ! A 
beak with a sharp hook at the end, a pair of 
sharp claws and strong wings, makes me 
the easy master of most birds. /^Fith a 
shrill cry I terrify them, or with my swift 
flight I overtake them. A^indness has never 
been charged against me ; but I destroy 
mice, and sometimes kill a snake, and hence 
* claim credit for doing some good. Farmers 
seem to have a grudge against me. I have 
many brothers, sisters, and cousins, and we 
all bear marked resemblances to one an- 



66 Elements of Agriculture. 

other in appearance and habits. Can you 
spell my name from leading letters in what 
I have told you ? " 



(c) " I am a large bird and live in the streets of 
southern cities. I eat decaying fruit and 
other impurities that are thrown into the 
streets. I am kindly treated because I am 
a scavenger. Do you know me ? Do you 
know my relatives ? " 



(d) " My feet are webbed, but that makes me able 
to swim ; my bill is flat, but that makes me 
able to get the food I like best ; when I 
walk, I jerk my head in a queer way, but 
that helps me to keep my balance ; I am 
prized most for what I carry on my back. 
My song is quack, quack, quack." 



(e) "yust as blue is the coat I wear, 
As any soldier's in the land ; 
Kou hear me shouting everywhere. 
In tones of loud and sharp command. 

" My beak is like a bayonet. 

And fear I never felt or knew ; 
And often when a foe I've met, 

I've shown him how my soldiers do. 



The Farmer's Friends. 67 

" If ' Jimmy ' Crow comes near my nest, 
I hit him with my beak a whack ; 
And when he flies I follow up,. 

And peck and scratch him on the back'. 

" You'll know my name if you are wise. 
It's fairly plain before your eyes." 



{/) " Poor me ! Poor me ! 

I am not a bird, I am not a bee ; 
My legs are so short I can scarcely run ; 
My eyes are so small I can scarcely see ; 
Poor me ! Poor me ! " 

" My teeth are so small and frail that I can eat 
nothing but worms and bugs and an occasional 
tender root or bulb. It is reported that I was once 
buried alive because I was found rooting in a lady's 
garden in my search for worms. Poor me ! 

" I work for days and even weeks to find the 
worms in a patch of grass land, a garden, or a field ; 
and when some of the grass dies because the worms 
have eaten the roots ; or when some of the plants 
wither and die because their roots were cut by the 
worms I found and killed, the farmer often hunts 
me with his dog, and then I have to go deep down 
into the ground in order to escape. 

" Poor me ! Poor me ! " 



68 Elements of Agriculture. 



2. NOTES. 

1. Many birds feed almost entirely upon insects. 

Birds that are ground-feeders eat such insects 
as they find in the grass and among the leaves, 
or such as they find by scratching in the 
earth. A flycatcher usually catches its prey 
while on the wiuQ- ; other birds take worms 
and bugs from the leaves of growing plants ; 
others locate and destroy worms that work 
beneath the bark. 
Chickens, turkeys, and ducks are examples of 
ground-feeders. Many wild birds feed either 
entirely or in part upon the ground. The 
kingbird is a flycatcher ; the robin takes 
worms from the leaves of plants; the wood- 
pecker takes worms from beneath the bark. 

2. Birds that by some people are thought to be 

harmful are often wrongfully accused. 
For example — a bee raiser once suspected that 
the kingbirds, often called bee-martins, were 
killing his bees. He shot a number of these 
birds and had the contents of their stomachs 
examined, but not a trace of honeybees could 
be found. 

3. For many years the government has employed 

and paid men to determine the kind of food 



The Farmer's Friends. 69 

that different birds hve upon. These men 
have examined the stomachs of many hun- 
dreds of birds, and in other ways have sought 
information concerning their food and 
habits. Following are a few examples of 
experiments they have made and of facts 
they have learned. 
{a) At one time they examined the contents of 
the stomachs of 281 kingbirds collected 
from various parts of the country. They 
found the remains of bees in only 14 stom- 
achs ; in these 14 stomachs they found 
only 50 bees ; 40 of these were drones and 
4 were knownTo be workers; the remain- 
ing 6 were so badly broken that the sex 
could not be determined. The remains of 
19 robber flies were found in the 281 stom- 
achs. Robber flies are insects that prey 
upon other insects, and especially upon 
bees. These experiments prove that about 
90 per cent of the food of the kingbird 
consists in flies, wasps, beetles, and other 
injurious insects, and that honeybees con- 
stitute only a small part of their food. In 
addition to the large number of harmful 
insects this bird destroys, it is otherwise 
useful. It usually builds its nest in an 



70 Elements of Agriculture. 

orchard, or in a grove near a house. If 
a hawk or a crow approaches its nest or 
disturbs the fowls of the near-by barnyard, 
this bold Httle bird at once attacks it and 
drives it away. 
(d) These men also determined that about 93 
per cent of the food of the phoebe con- 
sists of worms and spiders. 

(c) An examination of the stomachs of 46 black- 

billed cuckoos showed remains of 906 
caterpillars, 44 beetles, 100 sawflies, and 
15 spiders. 

(d) The 109 stomachs of the yellow-billed 

cuckoos examined showed remains of 
1,865 caterpillars, 93 beetles, 242 grass- 
hoppers, 2>7 sawflies, 69 bugs, and 86 
spiders. 

3. QUESTIONS. 

1. Name six kinds of birds that, during certain 

seasons of the year, assemble in flocks, bevies, 
or droves. 

2. Name two birds that catch mice. 

3. Name three that catch flies. 

4. Name four that are good songsters. 

5. State some differences in the way birds fly, 

(a) in the motion of the wings ; (d) in the 



The Farmer's Friends. 71 

motion of the body; (c) in the line of direc- 
tion, whether straight or curved ; (d) in 
their endurance in flight ; (e) name birds 
that cannot fly. 

6. What birds furnish the best feathers for pillows 

and beds ? 

7. Should birds be killed and their plumage used 

for trimming hats ? 

8. Do not most birds destroy insects ? 

9. Which is wiser and better, to kill the birds, or 

let them live to destroy insects and to make 
the world happier and better by their pres- 
ence and their songs ? 
10. Have you read the poem entitled " The Birds 
of Killingw^orth," written by Henry W. 
Longfellow ? 



72 Elements of Agriculture. 



LESSON XIV. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 
I. 

The earth gives man food, shelter, and clothing. 
The trees of the forests, the iron and tin of the 
mines, the stones of the hillsides, he shapes into 
buildings ; while various vegetables and animals 
give him the materials for his clothing and his food. 

Man, in his savage state, makes use of such fruit 
as he finds growing in the forests, and he uses these 
largely in the form in which he finds them, much as 
birds and animals do ; but as he becomes wiser he 
cultivates these fruits, adds to the varieties, and 
learns, in time, how to store them for future use. 

Knowledge in this direction is not so easily or so 
rapidly gained as one might think. 

For example : man has always been a consumer 
of fruit, but the principle of canning and thus stor- 
ing it for future use is a modern discovery. There 
was a time, too, when he depended upon the forests 
in his neighborhood for his supply of fruit, but as 
each neighborhood became more thickly populated, 
nature's supply was found to be too limited for the 
demand, and these conditions led to fruit culture or 
fruit growing. 



In the Orchard. 73 

Soil has something to do with the best growth of 
fruit, but climate and culhire are even more important. 

Some fruits, such as bananas, oranges, lemons, 
etc., thrive only in warm or tropical climates. 
Others, such as apples, peaches, grapes, plums, etc., 
grow in a temperate climate, and over a wider range 
of country. 

2. 

The practical farmer and fruit grower is at pres- 
ent most interested in the culture of the trees or 
plants he desires to grow, and in the care of the 
fruit after it is matured. He usually selects a piece 
of ground for his orchard that is sufficiently rolling 
to drain itself. He takes special pains in setting 
the trees or plants, because he realizes that their 
life and growth depend largely upon the manner of 
their planting and the attention they receive after 
they are set. 

He digs a hole somewhat wider than the 
actual spread of the roots, mellows the soil in 
the bottom of the hole, and carefully covers the 
roots with rich, loose earth. He sets the plants in 
straight rows, in such a way that they may be culti- 
vated in more than one direction. When setting 
the trees he usually leans them in the direction 
from which the prevailing winds of his locality 



74 Elements of Agriculture. 

blow, and makes the earth firm around them after 
they are set. 

He plows his orchard for the first few years after 
it is set, throwing the soil towards the trees one 
year, and from them the next year, thus securing 
nearly level cultivation. He keeps the top soil 
loose and mellow near the young trees by the use 
of a hoe. 

He does not allow weeds to grow in the orchard. 
They take moisture from the ground that should 
go to the trees ; they attract insects, breed disease, 
and are unprofitable. Clover and cowpeas are 
good cover crops for the soil, and he occasionally 
turns a crop of one of these products under while 
it is green, especially if his orchard does not 
grow well. 

He keeps his orchard well trimmed and free 
from dead limbs. In some sections of the country 
wood worms, called borers, work beneath the bark 
of the trees, usually near the tree roots, and do 
much damaore to orchards. Trees should be ex- 
amined two or three times a year and the borers 
removed. 

Birds destroy many worms and insects that infest 
orchards. Successful farmers and fruit growers do 
not depend entirely, however, upon the birds that 
may fortunately inhabit their orchards, to rid the 



In the Orchard. 75 

trees of insects and worms. They first seek to 
keep their trees healthful and vigorous by proper 
culture, and thus help them to throw off disease, 
and resist the attacks of insects. If this is not 
enough they must try spraying and other protec- 
tive measures. 

Insects that eat or chew the leaves of plants, 
such as the canker worm, bud-moth, codling-moth, 
tent caterpillar, etc., may be destroyed by the use 
of a poisonous spray. Such a spray may be made 
by putting Paris green (or London purple) in lime- 
v/ater in the proportions of one pound of Paris 
green (or London purple) and one or two pounds of 
slaked lime to two hundred gallons of water. The 
lime is used to prevent injury to the foliage from 
the Paris green. 

Insects that do not eat the leaves, but get their 
food by sucking the sap from the leaves or stems, 
— as plant lice and scale insects, — may be de- 
stroyed by applications that injure the bodies of 
such pests. For this purpose a kerosene emulsion 
will be of service. 

To make such a spray, dissolve one-half pound of 
soap in one gallon of water (soft) and add two gal- 
lons of kerosene ; to this, add from five to twenty 
gallons of water. 

Cabbage worms, currant worms, and other in- 



76 Elements of Agriculture. 

sects with soft bodies may also be destroyed by 
this spray. 

Fungous growth or diseases, such as leaf blight 
of plum and pear, apple scab, black rot, black-knot, 
mildew of the grape, etc., may often be destroyed 
by a spray called the Bordeaux mixture. 

To make such a spray, put six pounds of copper 
sulphate into a cloth bag, and suspend it in an 
earthen or wooden vessel containing six gallons of 
water, until the copper sulphate dissolves ; then dis- 
solve four pounds of quicklime in an equal amount 
of water; finally add enough water to make forty or 
fifty gallons in all of the mixture. 

Four ounces of Paris green (or London purple) 
added to forty or fifty gallons of the Bordeaux mix- 
ture makes a good spray, and may be used for both 
insects and fungi. 

The time for spraying will depend upon the kind 
of fruit to be protected, and the nature of the pest 
for which the spray is used. 

3- 

Much of the profit in fruit growing depends upon 
the manner of picking and packing the fruit. 

To illustrate : fruit thrown into a basket is 
bruised by the fall, even though the fall be one of 
only a few inches. The fruit soon begins to rot at 



In the Orchard. 77 

these bruised places. Fruit that is second grade 
while on the tree, but correctly picked and neatly 
packed, is worth more, and will usually bring more 
than the first grade fruit that is bruised in picking 
or handling, or that is poorly or untidily packed. 

Pears should be picked just before they begin to 
mellow or ripen. They should be picked with the 
stem on, and carefully placed in small piles, under 
cover, until they mellow, which usually will be 
within a week after picking. 

Cherries, phuns, and strawberries, should be 
picked while dry, and usually just before they are 
fully ripe. The stage of ripeness at which these 
fruits should be picked will depend somewhat upon 
the time required to reach the market with them. 
When picked they should at once be placed in a 
cool place in the shade. 

Cherries and plums should be picked with the 
full stem on ; strawberries should have the short 
stem which bears the individual berry, and the 
" hull " of the berry left on. Strawberries that have 
the hull pulled off are not marketable. 

Following are some of the reasons why the stems 
should be left on such fruit when it is picked : It 
keeps better with the stem on ; stems hold it in 
place in the boxes in which it is to be shipped; 
the stems take up the slack and prevent, in a 



j8 Elements of Agriculture. 

measure, tlie settling and the crushing of the fruit 
in transportation. 

When the fruit is picked, carefully sorted into 
two or three grades, and neady packed into baskets 
or boxes, it is ready for the market. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE SOIL. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

The great prairie plow turns over the sod upon 
which the grass has grown and the wild flowers 
have bloomed for ages. The farmer plants the 
corn and sows the wheat, and receives rich returns 
for his labor. But as the seasons pass, the blades 
become slender and the stalks small ; the ears are 
no longer large, nor the grains plump and round. 

Let us reflect. The grass that waved in the sun 
of many summers fell each year upon the earth, and 
strengthened the bosom that nourished it. The 
flowers that nodded upon the plains, and gave their 
perfume to the soft air, perished only to give 
strength and beauty to others of fairer form and 
sweeter fragrance. 

The generous soil has been giving to the farmer, 
in corn and cotton, the rich stores gathered from 
blade and flow^er. These rich gifts have been 
changed into ear and pod, that the farmer has been 
yearly gathering. 

There is a great law^ that must be applied here. 

79 



8o Elements of Agriculture. 

It is called the law of compensation. Since the soil 
has given of her stored wealth, an equivalent must 
be given to her, or her storehouse becomes empty 
and her power exhausted. 

It has taken much thought, and many years of 
experience, to learn what may be returned to the 
soil to repair the drain upon its natural supplies. 
The proper rotation of crops, the application of 
needed food supplies, the periods of rest and proper 
cultivation, are all subjects of the deepest interest, 
and are considered in the following lessons. 



The Soil. 8 I 

LESSON XV. 

STORY OF THE SOIL. 
I. 

" Father, where did all the land come from ? " 
Henry Patterson asked this question of his father, 
as they sat on the porch together one summer 
evening, after the day's work was done. 

" Well, Henry," said Mr. Patterson, ''that depends. 
It depends, in the first place, upon what you mean 
by ' land.' By the w^ord ' land ' do you mean all the 
earth's crust that is not water ? You know that the 
earth's crust is said to be composed of land and 
water; but the word 'land' when thus used in- 
cludes the rocky part of the earth's crust as well 
as the part that is often referred to as soil." 

Henry said that by the word "land" he had meant 
the part that he supposed should be called earth. 

'' Yes," said Mr. Patterson, " I understand now 
what you mean. By the word 'land' you mean the 
soil. I will tell you about it as well as I can. 
Much of the earth's surface that is now dry land 
was at one time covered with shallow waters — shal- 
low seas. These shallow waters teemed with low 
forms of animal and vegetable life. As these ani- 
mals, mosses, and sea-weeds died, their remains 



82 Elements of Agriculture. 

sank — built up from the bottom — and gradually 
the earth's crust became thicker in places. 

" In time, mountain ranges were formed, and the 
action of the air and the rai-n, the sun and the 
frosts, caused the rocks thus exposed to crumble, 
and water carried the crumbled rocks from the 
high places down into the low places. Sea-weeds 
and sea-mosses grew and decayed with the mass 
thus deposited ; then other plants grew as this 
mass became enriched by the decay of animal 
and vegetable life, and in time plants grew in 
great numbers. Vast forests were buried by 
floods, and these buried forests were burned into 
beds of coal by confined heat, just as a stick of 
wood is changed to charcoal in a stove or in a 
charcoal pit. 

" The air and water, heat and cold, crumbled 
other rocks, and the crumbled particles, mingled 
with decayed vegetable and animal remains were 
carried down by water, and other layers of soil 
were formed on top of the coal beds and else- 
where. Largely in this way, as the ages have gone 
by, the layers of soil have been formed by time and 
tide, life and death, growth and decay. 

" This work is still going on. Rocks crumble, or 
by friction are ground into fine particles ; plants 
convert a portion of this mass into leaves, stems* 



The Soil. 83 

and fruit ; animals eat the plants, and they are 
changed to flesh, and finally all these bodies go 
back to the soil, or to dust whence they came." 

2. 

Henry was much interested in all this, for he had 
not before thought much about it. 

" You see, then," Mr. Patterson went on, " that 
soils are composed of two general classes of ele- 
ments or matter, — the one class being the rock 
materials, and often called inorganic ; the other 
being the decayed remains of animal and plant life, 
often called oj^ganic matter." 

To help Henry to get this information clearly 
fixed in his mind, Mr. Patterson made the followinsf 
diagram: — 
I. Soil is coniposed of 

1. Inorganic matter, such as 

{a) Silicon, (d) aluminium, (r) lime, {d) so- 
dium, {e) potassium, {/) sulphur, {g) iron, 
(//) magnesia, etc. 

2. Organic matter, as 

{a) Remains of animals, {b) remains of 
plants. 
" You have no doubt noticed," continued Mr. Pat- 
terson, " that the upper part of the soil in many 
localities is dark in color. This dark soil is largely 



84 Elements of Agriculture. 

composed of decayed vegetable matter, or humus. 
Vegetable mold, or humus, is favorable to plant 
growth, because it is rich in plant foods, and 
because it tends to keep the soil mellow and 
moist." 

3- 

" Do you mean to say, father, that plants need 
food ? How can that be ? " The idea that plants 
require food was entirely new to the boy. 

" How could plants live and grow, Henry," asked 
Mr. Patterson, " if they did not take food ? " 

" Well," replied Henry, " I suppose they could 
not, but I had never before thought of it in that 
way. Do plants take water, too ? " Before Mr. Pat- 
terson could answer, Henry himself said, " I know 
they need water ! Haven't I seen them die for 
want of it ? " 

" While plants do not eat and drink just as ani- 
mals do," said Mr. Patterson, "still they take food 
and moisture from the earth and air. 

" There are less than one hundred elements 
known to science," he went on, " less than twenty 
of these are ever used by plants as food ; and of the 
number used, not more than a half-dozen are used 
to any great extent. 

" Plant food must be in the form of a liquid or 
a gas, before plants can use it. They use small 



The Soil. 85 

quantities of lime, iron, sulphur, silicon, magnesia, 
etc. ; yet all these must be reduced to the form of 
a liquid or a gas before the plant can take them. 
The foods most largely used, and supplied mainly 
through the soil, are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash. Carbons are obtained both through the 
soil and from the air. These substances are some- 
times present in the soil, but not in a form in 
which the plant can use them ; when thus present 
and unavailable, they may often be rendered avail- 
able by proper cultivation or management of the 
soil. If they are not present in the soil, they must 
be supplied through fertilizers before the crop will 
grow well." 



86 Elements of Agriculture. 

LESSON XVI. 

STORY OF THE SOIL {Continued). 

" Soils must be in good ' physical ' or ' mechani- 
cal ' condition, too," continued Mr. Patterson. " By 
this I mean that they must be reasonably mellow; 
not too wet, and not too dry ; and they should 
contain due proportions of inorganic and organic 
matter. Soils should not be too loose, neither 
should they be too hard and compact, because tall 
growing crops will not stand up well in soils that 
are too loose ; and they will not take good root or 
grow well in soils too hard or compact. 

" Cloddy soils expose large areas of surface to the 
air and sun, hence they do not retain moisture as 
well as soils do that are not cloddy. 

" Mellow soils expose larger areas of surface to 
the roots of plants than cloddy soils do. To illus- 
trate : A cubic foot of soil in the form of a cube 
has six faces that are one foot square, and hence the 
cube exposes six square feet of surface. Now im- 
agine this cube to be divided into eight cubes ; each 
of these cubes will have six faces that are six inches 
square ; hence each of the smaller cubes will expose 
three square feet of surface, and the eight will ex- 



The Soil. 87 

pose twenty-foursquare feet in all, that is, four times 
the surface exposed by the original cube. If each 
of these smaller cubes is again divided into eight 
cubes, the result will be sixty-four cubes. Each 
of these cubes will expose six faces, three inches 
square, and the sixty-four cubes will expose ninety- 
six square feet, — that is, sixteen times as many 
square feet as were exposed by the original cube. 

" It now becomes evident that as clods are pulver- 
ized the area of surface is tremendously increased, 
and the roots of the plants can find better lodgment, 
and will be far better bathed by soil and far better 
supplied with food and moisture than could prevail 
in a cloddy soil. A cloddy or compact soil may 
have within it the elements necessary to plant 
growth, and may be rendered productive simply by 
being fined or mellowed. Such a soil may be mel- 
lowed by the use of machines ; by under-drainage, 
by fall plowing, or by applying lime, ashes, sand, 
or other materials that tend to break up the lumps. 

" Very loose or leachy soils will sometimes be 
improved by bringing the particles closer together, 
that is, by compacting them with machines or by 
spreading lime upon them. Lime is said to both 
break down a lumpy soil and to compact a loose or 
leachy soil; but it should not be used on any soil in 
large quantities. 



88 Elements of Agriculture. 

" Most fertilizers improve the texture of soils and 
at the same time add to them plant foods. Proper 
cultivation or tillage both improves the texture and 
puts the soil in condition to retain moisture better." 

2. 

" Do plants need much moisture, father.^ " 

"Yes, Henry, they need a great deal. In fact 
they need so much that its supply in proper quanti- 
ties is probably one of the most important, as well 
as one of the most difficult questions the farmer has 
to solve. We have no control over the rainfall we 
receive during a season, and we know that growing 
crops must be supplied with moisture. 

" Fortunately, it is a fact in nature that moisture 
rises, and that plants get much moisture from be- 
low, — that is, from deep in the earth. In other 
words, the earth may be compared to a great 
sponge. Rains fall, and much of the water sinks 
into the earth — is absorbed by it ; then, in sum- 
mer, as the water at the surface is changed to vapor 
(evaporated) by the sun, and carried away by the 
air and by the winds, the water that was absorbed, 
and that is held deeper down in the earth, rises 
toward the surface, and supplies the fields and the 
forests with moisture." 

" But, father, how can moisture rise ? What 



The Soil. 89 

makes it rise? I should think it would sink deeper 
and deeper into the earth ! I do not understand 
this at all." And Henry's tone and manner showed 
that he was bewildered. 

" You have no doubt noted the fact of rising 
moisture, Henry," replied his father, ''but you did 
not connect it with moisture rising in the soil. Did 
you ever hold a piece of blotting paper with the 
edge or corner touching a drop of ink ? " 

"Quite often, father," said Henry, "and the ink 
rises in the blotter." 

" And if you hang a towel so that one end is in a 
pan of water, what happens ? " 

" Why, father, the towel takes up the water, and 
becomes wet." 

" Quite true," answ^ered his father. " And these 
simple facts show that moisture rises, Henry." 

It was then an easy step for Henry to connect 
his knowledge of these things wath rising moisture 
in the soil. 

" Now\" continued Mr. Patterson, " I wall tell you 
how you may perform an experiment that will show 
you the rising of moisture in the soil; an experi- 
ment that will prove to you that moisture rises more 
rapidly, and more evenly, in a soil that is reasona- 
bly mellow than it does in a soil that is cloddy. It 
will show, too, that a top coating of finely pulver- 



90 Elements of Agriculture. 

ized earth checks the rising moisture, and retains it 
in the soil below it." 

Just then Mrs. Patterson came out on the porch 
and reminded Henry that it was his bedtime. 
Henry was surprised to know the hour was so late. 
After his father had promised that he would explain 
the experiment the next morning, Henry went to 
bed. 



J 



The next morning Mr. Patterson said, " Now, 
Henry, I have a few minutes to spare, and will tell 
you how to perform that experiment, and this even- 
ing you may tell me what success you had, and 
what you learned ! " 

Experiment. 

" Take three glass tubes or jars open at both 
ends; tie screen wire or cheese cloth over one end 
of each; fill one tube or jar with dry clods; fill 
another with dry and rather mellow earth, but earth 
of the same quality of soil as that of which the clods 
are composed ; place two or three inches of clay in 
the third, and on this clay place a few inches of 
rather mellow earth, and finally, finish filling this 
tube or jar with finely pulverized soil. Squeeze or 
pack the contents of the last tube quite tight, and 
the samples will be ready. 



The Soil. gi 

" Now place two sticks about one inch apart in a 
wide pan ; rest the tubes or jars on these sticks, 
and pour water into the pan until the water stands 
higher than the lower openings of the tubes or jars. 
Standing the tubes on the sticks will-allow^ the 
water to come in contact with the soil. Note care- 
fully from the beginning in which tube or jar the 
water rises and dampens the soil the most rapidly ; 
note, also, which soil becomes the most evenly 
moistened ; and observe, especially, what effect the 
finely pulverized soil has upon the rising moisture, 
after the moisture reaches it. Then draw some 
conclusions, if you can, as to how the facts you 
observe may be made useful in the cultivation of 
crops." 

NOTES. 

I. Weigh some moist, fertile earth. Place a part 
of this earth in a jar and plant some seed or 
seta young plant in it and observe that the 
seed or the plant will grow. Place another 
portion of this earth in a pan and allow it to 
become thoroughly dry. (a) Note the loss in 
weight occasioned by the evaporation of 
moisture, (d) Place seed or young plants in 
this dry soil and note that they will not grow. 
Dampen the soil and the seed will sprout or 
the plants will grow. 



92 Elements of Agriculture. 

2. Place some fertile soil on a stove. The heat 

will drive out the moisture and will burn the 
organic matter out of it. Dampen the burned 
soil and plant seed or set a young plant in it, 
and note that there is no growth. Add or- 
ganic matter in the form of fertilizers and 
note that growth of the seed or plant will at 
once begin. A brick is a piece of earth hav- 
ing the organic matter burned out of it, but 
all bricks are not made from fertile soils. 

3. (a) Work up a ball of stiff clay with pure water, 

and another ball of the same clay with lime- 
water. Allow both to dry. Note that the 
former will become hard, but the latter will 
crumble. 
(d) Work up a ball of stiff, mucky soil with 
pure water, and another ball with the same 
kind of water, but sprinkle sand with the 
muck as it is mixed. Note that upon becom- 
ing dry the latter will crumble more readily 
than the former. 



CHAPTER V. 

PLANTS. FIELD PRODUCTS. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

The soil is the natural home of plants. Their 
roots grow downward and spread in all directions 
throughout the soil they penetrate and soon the 
plant becomes firmly attached to the earth. Their 
stems grow upward and stretch their long arms out 
into the air and many of them lift their heads high 
above the earth. 

The roots "feed" in the moist soil in which they 
live, while the leaves gather nourishment from the 
refreshing breezes in which they wave. But the 
sunshine must warm the bosom of the earth, and 
must kiss the leaf and the flower before the life- 
force within them can do its work. The summer 
shower must come and its waters moisten the soil 
and dissolve the elements of plant foods before the 
plants can utilize them. 

Just how and why this wonderful life-force acts 
under the influence of sun and rain is not known. 
However, there is much to be learned about the 
trees ; the flowers are ever a fascinating study ; 

93 



94 Elements of Agriculture. 

the grass that covers the plain is an open book ; 
the beauty and the wonders of the plant world 
reveal to all who study them the touch of a hand 
Divine. 

A study, too, of what may be called the World's 
Great Products, those products that are the source 
of employment to so many millions of the world's 
population, and that furnish much of the food and 
raiment of the human race, is a study not to be 
despised. The growing of wheat and corn, of 
cotton and rice, are co-extensive with civilization. 
The world is practically fed and clothed by these 
great staples. 

Competition in their production is sharp. All 
that men have learned, and all that remains to be 
discovered about these products, will be sought by 
those who produce them with greater "interest as 
the years go by. 

Soils upon which these staples are grown must 
be replenished as their strength is exhausted ; nqw 
machines must be invented and new methods con- 
stantly sought by which their production may be 
cheapened and their yield increased. The boys 
and girls of to-day are to become the farmers of 
to-morrow. The succeeding lessons are offered as 
aids along the lines they follow. 



Plants. Field Products. 95 

LESSON XVII. 

THE FAIRIES IN THE TREES. 

I. 

" It was a quiet day in June. Nature was in 
bloom, and life was in its glory. I had thrown my- 
self upon a green bank, and was looking at queer 
shadows of the trees that seemed to be inverted in 
the brook. They were dancing in the water that 
rippled over the rocks, but only bowing to each 
other, or to me, where the water was more quiet. 

" I must have been half asleep, for I thought I 
heard the brook singing as its waters glided over 
the rocks toward the sea ; and there were many 
voices among the trees, and sounds as of moving 
wings. 

" Once, when I roused a little, I saw a bobolink 
fly from the tree that shaded me. 

" Soon I fancied I heard strange little voices 
coming from the trunk of a great oak that stood 
on the opposite bank. As I sank into a deeper 
quiet, one voice seemed to say : ' I am a little wood 
cell. I form the trunk of the great tree and the 
blade of the waving grass. In fact, every plant that 
grows is made up of cells like me.' Then a chorus 
of voices came from every tree in the forest, from 



96 Elements of Agriculture. 

the grass, the flowers, the moss, from every plant 
the voices seemed to shout, — 

" ' We are plant cells ; we form every leaf 
And every plant the wide world over ; 
The trunk of the tree, the wheat in the sheaf, 
The bud of the rose, the bloom of the clover.' 

" Then the voice that I had first heard spoke 
once more, but this time in a more serious tone. 
It said : ' Our inner part is called protein {pro tein) 
and forms much of the flesh of animals ; it is a 
sticky or ropy substance and contains the element 
men call nitrogen. Our outer part, or covering, 
they call our cell wall, and it is composed of hydro- 
gen, oxygen, and carbon. The substance of our cell 
wall formed of these elements is called " cellulose." 

" ' The hydrogen and oxygen of our cell walls 
we get from the water that comes to us largely from 
the soil through the roots ; but the most of our 
carbon comes from the air through the leaves of 
the plants we form.' 

" And the leaves nodded and waved ; and fairy 
voices came from every one of them, shouting, 
' Yes, yes, yes, we furnish the cell with the carbon 
that makes coal for men.' 

" Then all the leaves were still but one, and its 
voice was gentle and sweet. It said, ' Yes, we ab- 



Plants. Field Products. 97 

sorb the carbonic acid gas from the air, and the 
sunshine does the rest.' Then it turned its face to 
the sun, as if to say, ' Kiss me, sunshine, and I will 
keep the carbon for the little cell, and will give the 
oxygen back to the air.' And again all the leaves 
waved and murmured to the passing breeze, as if 
rejoicing in their usefulness. 

"'When autumn comes,' continued the voice 
from the leaf, ' we fall to the ground and cover it. 
We protect it from the sun and prevent the escape 
of moisture ; we decay and give back to the soil the 
potash and the nitrogen we contain, and — and — ' 
but the words were lost, the sound was carried 
away by the breeze that brought a delightful fra- 
grance, and I heard faint voices that came from the 
flowery bank across the stream, — from daisies and 
violets, sweet-williams and buttercups, bluebells and 
roses, — all giving their fragrance to the air, all 
lending their beauty to the scene." 



" ' We furnish the pollen that fertilizes the seed,' 
cried a voice. 

" ' And we bear the nectar that attracts the 
honeybee,' said another. 

" ' Yes,' chimed in a third, ' and as the bee sips 
at the nectar fount, we cover its legs with our pol- 



98 Elements of Agriculture. 

leii which it carries to other flowers of our kind ; in 
this the bee is our special friend and helper.' 

" ' That is true,' cried another ; ' and many seeds 
would never grow — would never even form, if the 
friendly wind did not come and carry our pollen on 
its wings and give it to our friends.' 

" Then all the little flowers blushed and turned 
their faces aside, and the voices seemed to say, 
' We did not mean to boast, we were only happy 
and rejoicing to know that we are useful in the 
world.' 

'' And the sweetness of the fairy voices was won- 
derful as they joined in the chorus song: — 

" ' With shadowy forms, on wings of air, 
We came from endless time and space ; 
Our Goddess, Ceres, wondrous fair, 
Is mother of our fairy race. 

Hail ! fair Goddess, Ceres, 
Hail ! great Father, Time ; 
Love is the power that binds us. 
Love is the power Divine.' 

" But the shrill ' caw ' of a crow roused me. I 
rubbed my eyes, and as I arose I realized that I was 
Henry Patterson ; and I knew that I had been 
dreaming of what my father had told me the even- 
ing before about plants and plant growth. 

" Father laughed when I told him my odd expe- 



Plants. Field Products. 99 

rience. He said, however, that there was danger in 
lying down on the ground and going to sleep. One 
is likely to take cold if there is dampness in the 
erass or leaves. Since then I have been more cau- 

o 

tious about going to sleep on the ground." 

3. NOTES. 

I. The Cell. Cells form the real fabric and work- 
ing machinery of the plant. As a workman 
handles wood, iron, mortar, and other materials 
with which to construct buildings, so do plant 
cells appear to hold or carry materials other 
than those of which they are really (chemically) 
composed, such as starch, sugar, phosphoric 
acid, potash, and small quantities of some 
other substances. 
The starch and sugar carried by the cells are 
almost identical with the cellulose of the cell 
itself. These substances are stored in the 
grain, the bulb, or the stem of the plant, 
where they serve to nourish the young plant 
until it is old enough to secure food through 
the roots from the soil, or through its leaves 
from the air. Thus stored, they also serve 
as animal food. 
The phosphoric acid carried by the cells is largely 
deposited in the grain, whence it becomes the 
L.ofC. 



loo Elements of Agriculture. 

source of much of the phosphorus in the bones 

of animals. 
The potash they carry is represented by the ashes 

of the plant. 
The presence of starch is readily detected by the 

color test. 
Experiment. Pour diluted iodine on a piece of 

potato, turnip, onion, or in tiour, meal, etc., and 

the starch in them will turn blue. 
There is a certain circulation within the cell. This 

may be observed by making the following test. 
Experiment. Place a small piece of any water 

plant, any leaf, or piece of wood under a 

microscope. 
Observe the cells and the circulation beneath 

the cell wall, that is, within the cell. 
2. Rise of Moisture in Soil and Plants. Liquids 

rise in small openings by a force called eap il- 
ia ry attraetion. 
Experiment. Place two or more glass tubes of 

different size bore, and open at both ends, 

vertically in water. Observe that the water 

rises in each tube, but rises highest in the 

smallest tube. 
Liquids rise bv passing through a membrane 

and mixing with some other liquid by a force 

called os))iose. 



Plants. Field Products. loi 

Experiment. Fill a glass jar that has a wide 
opening at top nearly full of water. Fill a thin 
leather bag, or a bladder, with oil (other than 
coal oil), such as machine oil, or lard oil. Rest 
the bag or bladder of oil on the jar so that it 
touches the water. Observe that the water 
passes through the membrane up into the oil. 

Experiment. Make a sma41 hole in the little 
end of an ^gg through to the white of the ^g^. 
Insert a small dass tube in this hole, and close 
around the tube with sealing wax where it 
enters the ^g'g, making it air tight. Then 
break the shell on the big end of the ^g%, 
but not the membrane that lines the shell, 
making a hole in the shell as large as a silver 
quarter. Rest the ^g%. large end down, on 
the wide mouth of the jar or bottle filled with 
water, so that the membrane touches the water. 

Observe that the water will rise in the ^gg through 
the membrane, and that the white of the ^gg 
will rise in the tube. 

This illustrates both the passing of moisture in 
through the bark of the root of the plant by 
osmose, and the rise of sap in the plant by 
capillary attj^action. 



I02 Elements of Agriculture. 

LESSON XVIII. 

THE LITTLE EAR AND ITS BIG FRIEND. 
I. 

" ' O dear me ! I cannot get my nose out ! I 
cannot get my breath! What shall I do? What 
shall I do ? ' 

" These words came, in a piping Httle voice, from 
a stalk of corn that grew just over the fence in a 
neighboring field. 

" I was a big ear, and my nose was sticking out 
from under the husk that once covered me. As I 
looked through a crack in the fence I could see 
the poor little ear that had cried out so piteously. 

" There were six or seven stalks growing together, 
but only one stalk bore an ear, and that was the 
small ear that was crying. Again it cried, ' O dear! 
O dear ! What shall I do .^ ' 

" I was fast upon my stem and could not go to 
its relief. I begged of it, after a kindly greeting, 
to confide to me its history so that I might be of 
2:reater service. 

" ' O yes, to be sure,' said the little ear, in a much 
cheerier tone, ' your voice seems kind. I trust you 
may help me. 

" ' Once my ancestry were fine large ears, like 



Plants. Field Products. 103 

many others that grew with them ; but year after 
year they have been planted in this same soil, and 
now I can find no food in it, nothing to give me 
strength. Each year the soil has become less mel- 
low and more unfriendly. Last year I was planted 
among the clods. I have struggled all summer 
long, until I am tired out.' 

" The little ear sobbed and cried again, but its 
sobs were quickly changed to cries of delight when 
I told it that only a few days before I had heard 
its master say he was going to give the soil on 
which it grew a few years' rest, and plant his corn 
next spring on fresh, rich land. 

" ' That will be delightful,' shouted the little ear. 

" Just then a gentle breeze rustled the blades of 
the stalk on which it orew. The little stalk was 
clapping its hands for joy. 

" Then, remembering the past, it added : ' If my 
master had only allowed me to follow a crop of 
oats, or wheat, or clover, or grass, I should have 
grown much faster and should have yielded much 
more o-rain. I should have been sounder, too, and 
the worms would not have hurt me so badly.' 

" I did not chide the little ear for its complaint, 
for I knew its struggle had been great, and its cour- 
age sorely tried. I said to it, 'Cheer up, little ear; 
soon the nipping frost will come and kill the worm 



I04 Elements of Agriculture. 

that bites you ; and as soon as you are dry enough, 
your master will put you in a good warm crib.' 

" Sure enough, that very night a cold wind blew 
from the north. The hoar frost made mountains 
in the soil, and sparkled like diamonds on the 
blades ; and on the ears formed little soldiers, with 
broadswords in their hands. We all knew that 
harvest time w^is near. I" heard nothinsf more of 
the little ear save now and then a merry laugh and 
song, as the wind blew from the direction in which 
I had first heard the voice, and I was sure it was 
happy in the hope of a higher and better life." 

2. NOTES. 

1. Soil. Corn requires a rich soil. Soil that is 

not very fertile should be fertilized. This may 
be cheaply done by spreading barnyard ma- 
nure over it, or by occasionally plowing under 
a crop of green clover. Too many crops 
should not be grown in succession upon the 
same soil, how^ever fertile it may be. One crop 
of corn to two or more crops of small grain 
or grass will not only assist in preserving the 
soil, but will tend to keep it free from weeds 
and insects that may be injurious to the corn. 

2. Preparation of the Soil. The first thing to do 

in the preparation of the soil in which corn 



Plants. Field Products. 105 

is to be planted, is to plow it. Plowing is 
usually done in the spring, just before the 
corn is to be planted ; but corn will grow- 
well on land plowed in the fall, if the season 
is favorable. If the weather is dry when the 
ears are forming, the corn will " fire," that is, 
the blades will die and the stalks wither before 
the grain matures. Land that is plowed in 
the fall should be disked, or cultivated, and 
harrowed well in the spring, before the seed 
is planted. When the land is plowed in the 
spring, it can usually be pulverized with the 
harrow. The time required for cultivation 
and the amount of labor necessary will be 
much reduced, and the yield of corn largely 
increased, by putting the soil in good condi- 
tion before planting the seed. 
3. Planting. Corn should usually be checked, 
that is, it should be planted so that it may be 
cultivated in more than one direction. 
Cultivating in more than one direction rids 
the land of weeds and pulverizes the soil 
better than is possible if the corn is not 
checked. 
Corn is usually planted at regular intervals, 
from three feet eight inches to four feet apart, 
in what are called hills. From two to four 



1 06 Elements of Agriculture. 

grains are planted in a hill. In fertile soil, the 
hills are sometimes made twelve to twenty inches 
apart in the row, and one or two grains only 
planted in a hill, the rows being the usual dis- 
tance apart. This is called drilling the corn. 
4. Cultivating: Corn ma)- be harrowed before it 
sprouts. After it has come through the 
ground, it may be harrowed until it is several 
inches high. 
The harrow not only destroys the small weeds, 
but it also pulverizes the soil. The land 
should not lie long without being cultivated 
after the corn has come through the ground, 
but should be kept mellow and free from 
weeds. 
As a sponge absorbs water, so will a porous soil 
absorb moisture from the damp earth below it. 
A blanket or covering of loose soil retards 
evaporation. For these reasons, moisture 
will always be found and kept nearer the corn 
roots in soil that has been made mellow by 
deep breaking, and that is kept finely pulver- 
ized on the surface by cultivation during dry 
weather, than in soil that is not cultivated, 
as meadow land, waste fields, or even land 
plowed but not frequently cultivated on the 
surface. The mulch of earth upon the sur- 



Plants. Field Products. 107 

face, kept loose by frequent cultivation, makes 
the blanket or covering that retards evapora- 
tion. The cultivation during dry weather 
should not be too close to the corn, however, 
but the ''middles" — the spaces between the 
rows — should be frequently stirred. 

Corn that is weedy will not ear well. Weeds 
that grow between the rows may be plowed 
out, but weeds that grow in the hills must be 
pulled out or covered up. 

Harvesting. Corn should not be put in bulk 
until it is well cured. It may be husked from 
the stalk and cribbed, or it may be pulled or 
"snapped" off, and cribbed with the husk on 
the ear. Husked corn requires less crib room, 
and is in better condition for feeding and 
handling than corn that is not husked ; 
and for these and some other reasons, the 
better plan or method is to husk the corn 
from the stalk, and throw it directly into the 
wagon box, and thence to the crib. 

The crib should be strongly built. The sides 
may be somewhat open when intended for 
corn not shelled, but the roof should be 
" water proof," that is, it should not leak ; for 
when corn gets wet or damp in the bulk, it 
frequently heats and becomes worthless. 



io8 Elements of Agriculture. 

Corn is also harvested by being cut and put into 
shocks. When harvested in this way, it should 
not be cut while green, neither should it be 
allowed to get too ripe. If cut too green, it 
lacks nourishment, and both the grain and the 
fodder may mold in the shock; if allowed to 
become too ripe, it lacks flavor, and there is 
a loss in blades from falling and crumbling. 
When the grains have taken on a glaze, or 
when they plainly show the dent or pit, when 
the husks turn brown and indicate a ripening, 
when the lower blades are ripe and the upper 
blades are turning from a green to a golden 
hue, then the harvest time is at hand, and the 
corn may be safely cut. 

After the shocks have wilted or dried for a day 
or two, they should be securely tied, well 
toward the top, to prevent twisting or falling 
down. 

Wlien corn is harvested in this manner, it fur- 
nishes a large amount of excellent stock food 
that is in a condition for use in a variety of 
forms. For example, it may be fed from the 
shock without being husked ; or the corn may 
be husked from it and cribbed, and the fodder 
reshocked in the field for winter use. Or it 
may be shredded, that is, run through a ma- 



I 



Plants. Field Products. log 

chine called a shredder, which husks the corn 
from the fodder and then cuts and tears the 
stalks and blades into bits or shreds. The 
fodder thus shredded may be ricked in the 
open, or it may be placed in bulk in a mow 
or under a shed. Shredded fodder should 
be thoroughly dry before it is ricked or 
bulked, for if shredded and placed in bulk 
before it is well cured, it may mold and 
become of little value. 

Corn may be cut, and the entire product run 
through a shredder or cutter, and immediately 
placed in a silo. In this w^ay it is preserved 
green for winter use. 

Earth makes a good bottom or floor for the silo. 
The wall should be strongly built to prevent 
bulging or springing, and the inside surface 
of the wall should be made smooth, so that the 
contents may settle evenly. The silo should 
be made from twenty to twenty-five feet high, 
in order to get necessary pressure in the 
weight of the silage to exclude the air. The 
doors or openings in the sides should be one 
above another, and not too far apart. As the 
green corn is cut (or shredded) it should be 
carefully placed or packed in layers, the silo 
being filled from the bottom upward and 



iio Elements of Agriculture. 

always emptied from the top downward. 
When the silo is full a few buckets of water 
may be thrown upon the top layer; this will 
hasten the formation of an air-tight covering 
of rotten silage, which will protect the rest 
from the action of the air. When the silage is 
desired for winter use, the rotted covering may 
be thrown off. 

The exclusion of air from silage preserves it ; 
hence the use of salt or other preservative is 
unnecessary. 

Doors above the upper surface of the silage 
should be left open for ventilation ; but the 
doors below the surface should be kept closed 
" air tight." Corn should be cut at about the 
same stage of ripeness for silage as for shock- 
cured fodder. In feeding cattle, some dry 
food should be given with the green silage. 



Vocabulary. 

corn, — the entire maize plant, including stalk, 
blades, and ears, also the grain this plant 
produces. (In England, wheat, oats, barley, 
etc., are called corn. In Scotland, oats are 
called corn.) 



Plants. Field Products. 



I I I 




115-T0N Silo. 
At the Missouri University Experiment Station. Cost, complete, $174. 

corn Jutsk (or shuck), — the entire outer covering 
of the ear, that is, the part to be removed 
in hu skin Of the corn. 



1 1 2 Elements of Agriculture. 

corn tasscL — the head or top part of the stalk, 

composed of spikes, which bear the male 

flower and the pollen. 
co7'n silk, — the delicate threads at the end of 

the ear that bear the female flowers of the 

plant, which receive the pollen as it falls or is 

blown from the tassel. 
corn stalk. — the main stem upon which the ear 

and blades of corn grow. 
corn fodder (ox fodder corn), — the entire plant, 

cured, includins^ the ear. 
corn stover, — the cured plant, after the ear has 

been removed. 
corn silage, (frequently called ensilage), — corn 

fodder preserved green. 
silo, — a strong, practically air-tight structure, in 

which corn fodder (or other rough forage) is 

preserved green. 
siloing. — the process or act of putting green 

forage into the silo state. 
vinlcJi. — a loose covering for the soil to retard 

or arrest the escape of moisture by evapora- 
tion. Pulverized earth serves well as a mulch. 

Straw, hay, sawdust, etc., are also used as 

mulches. 



Plants. Field Products. 1 1 3 



LESSON XIX. 

COTTON. 
I. 

Cotton is an important vegetable fiber. It is 
a native of warm climates, but because of its 
value, it has been acclimated to higher latitudes, 
and is now extensively cultivated far into the 
temperate zones. 

The plant grows to a height of from three to 
seven feet. Many branches spring from the main 
stalk ; these branches subdivide, and most of the 
subdivisions bear numerous white, yellow, or purple 
flowers. Very soon a pod or " boll " takes the place 
of the flower. Each pod or boll has from three to 
five cells, and each cell contains a number of seeds. 
To each of these seeds is attached a large number 
of delicate white fibers. These fibers form the 
cotton of commerce. As the seeds ripen, the bolls 
spring open, the fibers unfold, and soon the hills 
and vales of the cotton fields look like a mass of 
livino^ snow. Branches continue to s^row out from 
the stem of the plant, and blossoms continue to 
appear as the season advances ; hence all the cot- 
ton bolls do not open at the same time. 

The open boll, the maturing pod, and branches 



114 



Elements of Agriculture. 



sending out their blossoms are all found on the 
plant after the cotton begins to ripen. 




Col ION I'LAM, WITH liLOSSuMS AND BuLLb, 



Both the cultivation of cotton and its conversion 
Into the finished product have been largely cheap- 
ened during recent years by the invention of ma- 
chinery. It has also been lately discovered that the 
seed contains valuable oils, and that the residue of 
the seed, after the oils have been pressed out or 
extracted, is valuable as stock foods (called cotton 



Plants. Field Products. i 1 5 

cake, cotton-seed meal, etc.). The cotton-seed meal 
is also largely used as a fertilizer. 

2. 

Ground that is not too rolling should be plowed 
early in the season ; it should be well disked, or 
cultivated, and pulverized just before it is seeded. 

The labor required in cultivating the crop will 
be reduced, and the yield of cotton will be in- 
creased, by putting the soil into good condition 
before the seed is planted. 

The methods of preparing the soil and planting 
the seed will depend to some extent upon the 
character of the soil and its slope. Land that is 
rolling, and that washes badly, requires a special 
preparation that can only be learned through ex- 
perience. Land that is flat, and upon which water 
might stand for a time after a rain has fallen, is 
generally " listed " after the seed bed has been pre- 
pared, and before the cotton is planted. This list- 
ing consists in making small ridges in which the 
seeds are planted. 

Some soils must be fertilized before they will 
produce the largest yield. For this purpose, well- 
rotted stable manure is probably the best, but pre- 
pared fertilizers are extensively sold. When stable 
manure is used, it may be spread upon the soil and 



ii6 Elements of Agriculture. 

plowed under, or it may be spread after the land 
has been plowed. If prepared fertilizer is used, it 
may be distributed in rows, either before the cotton 
is planted, or along with the seed as they are 
deposited. 

The following is the most economic method. 
Use a two-horse seeder that is provided wdth boxes 
for orrain and with a box or boxes for fertiHzer. All 
these should so open into the shoes that the seed 
and fertilizer, if fertilizer is used, are deposited and 
covered together or near each other. If the land 
is to be listed, a lister may be attached in front of 
each shoe. In this way, two rows are listed, fer- 
tilized, and planted at each " through " ; and thus 
the largest amount of work is done in the best 
manner, at least expense. In seeding rough or 
very rolling land, more laborious and hence more 
expensive methods must be employed than that 
above described. 

Much rainfall after cotton is planted, and before 
it comes through the ground, will cause a crust to 
form over the surface of the seed bed, through 
which the tender sprouts cannot force their way. 
Cultivating the surface of the soil with a light 
spring-toothed harrow or horse rake will break the 
crust and enable the sprouts to come through. 

The regular cultivation of the plants should 



Plants. Field Products. 



117 



begin as soon as they are through the ground. 
While the plants are small the middles may be kept 
mellow and free from weeds by the use of harrows 
and cultivators wdth narrow shovels. Wider shovels 
may be substituted for the narrow as the season 
advances. Many successful planters use the narrow 
shovel, however, during the entire period of culti- 
vation, with satisfactory results. The cultivation 
should be thorough, and the soil should be kept 
mellow and free from weeds. 

It is much easier to remove plants when they 
stand too thick in the row than to supply plants 
that may be missing. For this reason the seeds 
are usually drilled close together, and when the 
plants are a few inches high they are thinned until 
they stand one in a place, and from eight to twelve 
inches apart in the row. Formerly the surplus 
plants w^ere cut out with a hoe and the process 
was called "chopping" the cotton. In many locali- 
ties this work is now done with machines drawn 
by horses. 

When the cotton is ripe it is picked from the 
pods and put into sacks. It is then carted to the cot- 
ton gin, where the seeds are separated from the 
cotton fiber. The fiber is then pressed into large 
bundles called bales. Each bale weighs about five 
hundred pounds. The bales are sent to mills. 



ii8 



Elements of Agriculture. 




Picking CorroN. 



where the cotton is spun into threads and woven 
into cloth. 

Coarse muslins, tentings, etc., are made from the 
coarser grades. Fine muslins, calicoes, etc., are 
made from the finer grades. Sea-island thread, 
fine laces, and fabrics are made from the very fine 
quality of cotton which is grown on the low sandy 
islands along the coast of South Carohna, Georgia, 
and Florida, and which grows to some extent on a 
part of the mainland of these states. 



Plants. Field Products. 119 

3. NOTES. 

1. America produces more cotton than any other 

country. Strangely enough, much of the 
cotton produced in this country, and nearly 
all that is grown in Egypt, India, China, 
Brazil, and other cotton-growing countries, 
is shipped to England, France, or Germany 
to be manufactured into thread and fabrics. 
New York, Boston, Savannah, Charleston, 
New Orleans, and Galveston are leading ports 
from w^hich cotton is exported. 

2. It is only of late years that the seed of cotton 

has been utilized. The lard, the lubricating 
oils, the stock foods, and the fertilizers now 
made from them give them a commercial 
value of from twenty to forty cents per bushel. 
The stems of the plants make a fine grade of 
linen paper. 

3. Following are the distinct types of cotton: 

(i) cluster; (2) long limbed; (3) long staple; 
(4) short staple. There are many varieties of 
each type. The short staple is best adapted 
to upland. The long staple requires a special 
soil and a favorable season. 



I 20 Elements of Agriculture. 



LESSON XX. 

WHEAT. 



Wheat will grow well in many kinds of soil, and 
in cold, temperate, and warm climates. The grain 
supplies food for both man and beast. The bran, as 
the wheat hull is called, is a good food for animals; 
while the straw is not only a stock food, but is used 
in making paper, in making straw hats, strawboard, 
and many other useful things. These facts make it 
clear why wheat is grown by the people of so many 
countries and in climates differing so widely. 

Some farms will produce many more bushels of 
wheat to the area than others. This difference in 
yield depends chiefly upon difference in soil, dif- 
ference in climate, and difference in the methods 
employed by those who plant and harvest this useful 
crop. A heavy growth of straw sometimes bears 
a small supply of imperfect grain. The wise farmer 
knows there is a reason or cause for this. He 
knows that his soil needs minerals. 

To supply these, he has loads of bones ground to 
meal and spreads this over his fields. He knows 
that in Florida and the Carolinas there are great 
beds of glassy-looking rocks called phosphoric rocks 



Plants. Field Products. 121 

or phosphoric beds. These rocks contain phos- 
phoric acid, and when pulverized they form a good 
mineral fertiHzer which is shipped to all parts of the 
country. From bones, and from phosphoric rocks, 
then, he knows that one of the minerals (phosphoric 
acid) needed by his soil can be obtained. 

Potash is the other mineral that plants use largely, 
and this he knows is contained in wood ashes, which 
he also hauls and spreads on his soil. 

On the other hand, if the plant shows a small 
blade or spindling stem, if it lacks in vigor and 
color, he knows that nitrogen should be added to 
the soil, and he spreads barnyard manure, cotton- 
seed meal, dried blood, etc., over it, for these all 
contain the needed nitrogen. 

Barnyard manure not only contains nitrogen 
stored in its vegetable matter (humus), but it also 
contains a small amount of phosphoric acid and 
potash, and is an excellent fertilizer for thin or 
badly worn soil. It is well to cover this fertilizer 
by plowing it under. 

Some fertilizers may be scattered over the surface 
of the field and covered by harrowing, or they may 
be drilled in the earth near the o^rain. 

Every farmer finds it profitable to study the char- 
acter of the soil he is cultivating and the character 
of the fertilizer it may require. 



122 Elements of Agriculture. 



The time for seeding land in wheat depends 
chiefly upon chmate. In some latitudes, mainly 
northern, almost the entire acreage is seeded in the 
spring of the year; in other latitudes seeding is 
done in the fall. 

Wheat planted in the fall, and harvested the fol- 
lowing summer, is called fall wheat; while wheat 
that is planted in the spring and harvested in the 
summer is called spring wheat. 

Successful wheat growers in many countries plow 
the ground a month or more before seeding time. 
They think that early plowing allows the soil to 
become firm and compact and the moisture to rise 
nearer the surface, so that the wheat will come 
up more promptly if there should be a drought. 
They think, too, that early plowing renders the 
plant foods of the soil in a condition in which 
the plants can more readily use them, and that it 
largely frees the soil from insect eggs that may 
have been deposited. 

If a drouo-ht is feared, it is well to harrow the 
land as soon as it is plowed. This will create a 
coating or mulch of mellow top soil which will 
arrest the escape of moisture through evaporation. 
Land early plowed should be disked, or cultivated. 



Plants. Field Products. 123 

and well mellowed before it is seeded. Seedinor is 
done best and cheapest with a drill. 

The wheat used for seed should be sound and 
free from foreign seed. The soil may be left some- 
what uneven on the surface after seeding. 

3. NOTES. 

1. There is a wide difference in the methods of 

harvesting wheat. The method to be used 
will depend largely upon the physical features 
of the country, the climate, etc. In some 
localities the crop is headed, and the heads 
are either hauled and placed in heaps for a 
time, or else they are hauled direct to a 
thresher, where the grain is threshed from 
them and placed in sacks. In other locali- 
ties the wheat is cut and bound into bundles, 
called sheaves. Eight to twenty of these 
sheaves are placed together in an upright 
position to form shocks. The shocks are 
usually allowed to stand in the field for some 
days, so that the straw may cure and the grain 
dry. The crop is then either hauled to the 
machine and threshed, or else placed in a 
stack, or in bulk under a shed. 

2. Wheat placed in bulk, either before it has been 

threshed, or after threshing, soon passes into 



I 24 Elements of Agriculture. 

what is called a " sweat." If the bulk is 
large, the grain sometimes spoils from over- 
heating. For this reason small compartments 
in bins are recommended. . Stirring wheat 
with a shovel, or changing it from one com- 
partment or bin to another while the grain is 
in the sweat, will often prevent injury. Pine 
laths placed in the wheat will also help to dry 
the grain by absorbing moisture. 

3. Frequent rotation of crops is quite as necessary 

in the production of wheat as it is in the pro- 
duction of corn. Proper rotation not only 
" rests " the land, but it also frees it in a great 
measure from insects and wheat diseases. 
A crop of clover or a crop of cowpeas may, 
with profit, precede a crop of wheat. These 
are especially good rotating crops, because 
of the nitrogen they supply, and the shade 
they afford to the soil. 

4. Varieties of wheat (or other cereals) do not de- 

teriorate. (run out) as quickly as many persons 
suppose. In fact, most varieties may be im- 
proved by careful cultivation. There are 
dangers attending a change of seed. The 
farmer who has a good variety should be 
slow to change to a variety not known to be 
adapted to his soil, and not known to be free 



Plants. Field Products. 125 

from foreign seed, smut, etc. Wheat does not 
always yield well under conditions that are 
new to it ; and seed that is bought at random 
often proves disappointing, even undesirable. 
When a change is thought to be necessary, 
the safest plan is to procure seed from some 
reliable and careful farmer in the neighbor- 
hood, — a variety which he can recommend, 
and which is known to be free from such 
foreign seed as wild oats, cockle, Russian 
thistle, mustard, cheat, etc. 
5. Following are a few varieties of wheat in com- 
mon use : — 

Fall Wheat. 

1. Fultz. — Bald; red; about 70 grains in a head. 

2. Hybrid Mediterranean. — Bearded (some varieties bald); 

red, (some varieties white) ; about 24 grains in a head. 

3. Fukasier. — Bearded ; red ; about 24 grains in a head. 

4. Michigan Amber. — Bald ; red ; about 48 grains in a head. 

5. Canadian Amber. — Bald; hardy. 

6. Turkey Red. — Bearded ; red. 

7. Winter Bluestem. — Large berry ; long head ; yields well. 

8. Red Cross. — Large berry ; red ; yields well. 

9. Dawson's Golden Chaff. — White; bald; yields well. 
10. Early Genesee Giant. — White; bearded; yields well. 

Spring Wheat. 

I. JVild Goose. — Long straw ; large head ; bearded ; very hard ; 
large berry. 



I 26 Elements of Agriculture. 

2. Red Fife. — Long heads; bearded: grain red; very hard, 

and of excellent milling quality. 

3. Medeah. — Very long straw; large, square heads; black 

beards ; very large, hard berry ; very early. 

4. Herison Bearded. — Short, square head; small, plump berry; 

red ; medium soft ; weighs about (i^^ pounds per measured 
bushel. 

5. Hayne's Bluestem. — Long berry; hard; chaff covered with 

minute hairs, which has led to the common term, " velvet 
chaff wheat." 



Plants. Field Products. 1 27 

LESSON XXI. 

RICE. 

I. 

Rice is probably the oldest of cultivated cereals, 
— its culture dating back to nearly three thousand 
years before the Christian era. It forms the princi- 
pal food of half the population of the world. Be- 
cause of its extensive cultivation and use as a food 
product it is often called '' the world's greatest 
cereal." 

There are many hundreds of varieties, but the 
"gold seed" or yellow rice is the variety now chiefly 
cultivated in this country. 

Most varieties grow best on lowland, yet a few 
kinds are grown on upland. The best rice land is 
a clay loam having a heavy or stiff subsoil or 
under clay soil. 

Average rice land will produce from eight to 
twelve sacks- or barrels of rice, of 162 pounds each, 
per acre, at a cost of production of from $25 to $40 
per acre. The product is worth to the producer 
from three cents to six cents per pound in the 
market. The by-products, as the stem, hull, etc., 
are called, add something to the value of the crop. 
The by-products are chiefly valuable as fertilizers. 



128 Elements of Agriculture. 

Rice land is usually plowed just before it is 
seeded. The surface is thoroughly pulverized 
before seeding begins. 

The earlier method of planting was to sow the 
seed broadcast ; but the modern drill distributes 
the seed more evenly and covers it better than 
can be accomplished by broadcast sowing, and is 
preferable. 

Seed rice is always carefully selected with special 
effort to securing uniformity in the size of the 
grains. Great pains are also taken to select seed 
that is free from red rice, from grass, and other 
foreign seed. From one to three bushels are sown 
to the acre, the amount varying with the locality, 
character of the soil, etc. 

Rice fields vary in size from one acre to eighty 
acres. Small fields are preferable for two reasons. 
Small plots of ground may be selected that have 
level surfaces, and these allow more even flooding 
than large fields, on account of the unevenness 
of level that is likely to obtain in a large field. 
Small plots may be sown one after another; then 
the plots ripen and may be harvested in the order 
in which they were sown, and thus the harvest of 
the entire crop does not come on at the same time. 



Plants. F^ield Products. 1 29 



Irrigating or flooding is the most important 
process in rice culture. If the land is sufficiently 
moist at seeding time to sprout the seed, it is 
usually unnecessary to flood the land until after 
the rice is six or eight inches high. Then the 
water is turned on from the irrigating ditches 
until it stands from three to six inches deep over 
the field. The water is kept fresh by a constant 
inflow and outflow. All water is withdrawn several 
days before harvest, so that the ground will dry and 
become firm before harvest begins. 

The methods of flooding vary, however, in dif- 
erent localities. In some sections of the country 
the land is flooded as soon as the rice is planted. 
This " sprout-water," as it is called, is allowed to 
remain on the ground until the seed sprouts ; then 
it is withdrawn. 

Sometimes it is let on again within a few days 
and allowed to remain a short time, and is again 
withdrawn. When the plant has two leaves, the 
" stretch water " or " long point flow " is put on and 
allowed to remain for a month, when it is drawn 
and the crop is hoed. When jointing begins the 
" lay-by flow " is turned on and remains until a few 
days before harvest time. 



I 30 Elements of Agriculture. 

Harvest begins as soon as the straw commences 
to show yellow at the bottom. The crop is har- 
vested and threshed in very much the same manner 
as wheat. 

The rouorh rice as it comes from the thresher is 
called "paddy," and has to be milled to remove 
the husk from the grain. The "milling stones" 
used in milling rice are set about two-thirds of 
the length of the grain apart, and the stones 
rapidly revolved. After the rice is milled the 
grain is of a mixed white and yellow color. In 
order to remove the outer skin, it is put into 
mortars that hold five or six bushels each, and in 
these it is pounded with pestles that weigh from 
three hundred to four hundred pounds. The fiour 
and chaff are then removed from the grain by 
screening and fanning, and the rice is allowed to 
cool. In a few hours the grain is cool and is passed 
over brush screens, and the small grains separated 
from the large ones, and all is thoroughly cleaned, 
ready for the last process — polishing. 

Polishing is accomplished by placing the grain 
in double cylinders of wood and wire gauze, around 
which are tacked pieces of tanned sheepskin that 
have been worked until they are very soft. These 
cylinders revolve, and friction gives the grain the 
pearly white appearance or polish required. After 



Plants. P'ield Products. 1 3 1 

the grain is polished it is passed over screens and 
separated into grades. It is then sacked ready for 
the market. 

3. NOTES. 

1. For a long time rotation of crops was not con- 

sidered necessary in rice culture. Experience 
has taught that not only is rotation of crops 
beneficial, but that rice land must be fertilized 
if continuous production is expected. 

2. Burning rice straw and rice hulls is very waste- 

ful. These make good fertilizers for the rice 
fields, and good mulches for gardens, small 
fruits, and orchards. 

3. A forage crop planted after the rice crop is 

harvested is not only a source of profit as 
forage, but mellows the soil and rids it of 
red rice, weeds, and grass. 
Oats, corn, crimson clover, etc., make good for- 
age crops to follow rice. The field should be 
plowed after the red rice and weeds have come 
up, but before these have formed seed. The 
land may then be allowed to lie in fallow for a 
time. It is then well disked, and the forage 
crop is planted in time to produce winter 
pasture. 



132 Elements of Agriculture. 

LESSON XXII. 

TOBACCO. . 
I. 

Tobacco is an Important crop In many countries. 
In the United States It Is extensively grown 
throughout the Virginias, and the Atlantic and 
the Gulf states south; In Kentucky, Southern Ohio, 
Tennessee, Arkansas, and Central Missouri ; In sec- 
tions of New York, Connecticut, Maryland, and 
Pennsylvania. A few varieties mature as far north 
as Wisconsin. 

When grown In fresh, rich soil that does not 
require fertilizing, tobacco Is a profitable crop ; but 
It Is a crop that draws heavily from the soil and 
soon Impoverishes It. Soil once Impoverished from 
having had too many crops of tobacco grown upon 
It, must be fertilized before It will again produce 
well. 

It Is almost a universal custom to " burn " beds 
In which the plants are to be grown until large 
enough to be set In rows In the field where they 
are matured. A protected spot, having a southern 
slope or exposure, is usually selected for the bed. 
On this spot, brush and logs are piled, — sometimes 
upon the ground ; sometimes upon some poles 



Plants. Field Products. 



33 



placed a foot or two apart, to afford a passage of 
air under the fuel. Fire is applied to the leeward, 
or on the side away from the wind, so that the heat 
may be steady. Fuel is added from time to time, 
until the underlying earth is thoroughly w^armed. 
After the bed has cooled sufficiently to be worked, 
it is cultivated with a spade, or hoe, to a depth of 
about two inches, and the surface pulverized before 
the seed is sown. The seed should be covered 
lightly by passing a rake, or a bushy limb, back- 
ward and forward a few times over the surface of 
the bed. Seed thus sown should come up in about 
two weeks, and in from four to six weeks the plants 
will be large enough to be set in the field where 
they are to be matured. 

The field should be plowed in the fall, and 
should be disked, and thoroughly mellowed with 
the harrow^ in the spring, before the plants are set. 
The rows should be from three to four feet apart, 
and the plants from tw^o to four feet in the rows. 
Some planters mark off the land into blocks about 
three feet and a half square, and set the plants so 
they may be cultivated in two directions. A small 
amount of fertilizer may be placed in the earth 
under each plant when the plants are transferred 
from the seed bed to the field. 

The cultivation should be shallow. The middles. 



134 Elements of i\gricLiltLire. 

or spaces between the rows, should be kept mellow 
and free from weeds. While the plants are small, 
this may be done by the frequent use of harrows, 
plows, etc. The earth near the plants must be 
kept mellow, and free from weeds and grass, by 
hoeing. 

Growing tobacco is often infested by caterpillars, 
corresponding in color to the color of the leaves on 
which they feed. If these are not removed, they 
soon damage the crop ; hence, it is necessary fre- 
quently to examine the leaves and destroy all larvae 
and eggs that may be found on them. This is 
called " worming " the tobacco. 

Tobacco must also be '" topped " and " suckered." 
Topping tobacco consists in breaking or cutting 
the top from the main stalk or stem of each plant 
(reserving a few seed plants). Small varieties are 
so topped that from ten to fourteen leaves are left 
upon the stalk ; from sixteen to twenty-four leaves 
are left on strong plants growing in rich soil. The 
purpose of topping is to remove the seed head, so 
that all nourishment drawn from the earth and air 
may go to the remaining leaves. 

Soon after the plants are topped, suckers will 
grow from the stems at the points where the leaves 
grow or spring from them. These suckers must 
be removed whenever they appear, for if not re- 



Plants. Field Products. 135 

moved, they will draw nourishment from the stem, 
that should go to the leaves. 



As tobacco ripens, the leaves of most varieties 
gradually assume a light or golden color, and take 
on something of a smoother, softer feel to the touch. 
The proper time for harvesting the crop can only 
be learned by experience in tobacco culture. If 
harvested while too green, there is loss in weight, 
and the quality of the product is unfavorably 
affected. 

The harvesting of the ripened crop is usually 
accomplished in the following manner. An opera- 
tor approaches a plant from one side, raises the 
bottom leaves of the plant on that side, and with 
the leaves thus raised and rested upon the arm, he 
grasps the stalk with the hand. He then strikes 
the stalk near the ground with a cleaver held in the 
other hand and severs it. While the plants are 
freshly cut their leaves are turgid and easily injured. 
For this reason the plants are either left lying on 
the ground for some hours after they have been cut, 
or else put upon laths, or tobacco sticks, and hung 
upon temporary scaffolds to wilt. The latter 
method is generally used with the finer grades 
grown for cigar wrappers, to avoid any injury to 



136 Elements of Agriculture. 

the leaves that might occur from their contact with 
the damp earth. 

When wilted, the plants are carted to the tobacco 
house and there hung up to cure. When a partial 
sun cure is desired, the wilting-scaffolds are placed 
near a shed. At night, or upon the approach of 
rain, the tobacco is removed to the shed and then 
returned to the drying-scaffold each day, or after 
the shower is over, until ready to be hung in the 
tobacco house. 

Plants should not be cut in the early morning 
while the dew is on the leaves, because the moisture 
will cause black spots to appear on them. The 
leaves sometimes sunburn if the plants are cut near 
midday. 

The bottom or ground leaves usually ripen first, 
and in some localities the better grades of these are 
pulled off and hung to dry, before the majority of 
the leaves have ripened. 

Usually in from ten to twenty weeks after the 
crop has been placed in the drying-house, the leaves 
are thoroughly cured. They are then pulled from 
the stems and tied in bunches called " hands " ; 
these are " bulked," that is, they are placed in piles, 
and are usually covered with boards upon which 
weights are placed. The hands are finally taken 
from the bulk and " prized " ; that is, pressed into 



Plants. Field Products. 137 

hogsheads, or strong casks, — in this form the crop 
is marketed. At the factory the hands are con- 
verted into the finished product — plug tobacco, 
cigars, etc. 

3. NOTES. 

1. Nicotine is the active principle in tobacco. It is 

a virulent narcotic or irritant poison. It acts 
upon the nerves, spinal chord, and brain. 

2. Many governments tax tobacco, it being a lux- 

ury, and not a food plant. The tax is usually 
levied on the finished product, and the boxes 
in which it is placed are stamped on the out- 
side with what are called revenue stamps. 
These stamps are bought from the govern- 
ment by the manufacturer. When a box con- 
taining the finished product is emptied, the 
stamp on the box must be destroyed, so that 
it may not be used again. The money that 
is paid for these stamps is called " revenue," 
and goes to the support of the government 
levying the tax. When tobacco is shipped 
from one country to another a charge or duty 
is often levied upon it by the country into 
which it is shipped. This is called a " tariff," 
and goes to support the government that 
levies it. 



138 Elements of Agriculture. 

3. Following are a few of the many varieties of 

tobacco in common use : — 

1 . White Bu?'ley. — Early ; good color ; popular. 

2. F?'ince Bismarck. — Cures easily ; popular. 

3. General Grant. — Very early ; finegrained; productive. 

4. Sweet, or Yellow Orinoco. — Good color ; popular for 

home use. 

5. Havana. — Large leaf ; fine texture ; yields well. 

6. Sumatra. — Narrow leaf ; tall grower ; yields well. 

7. Comiecticiit Seed Leaf. — Hardy ; yields well. 

8. Hyco. — Good color ; sells well. 

9. Havana Seed. — Fine texture; delicate flavor; popular. 

10. Yellow Orinoco. — Long, narrow leaf ; fine texture; very 

sweet. 

11. Pryor (yellow, white, or blue). — Large leaf; good 

color; weighs well. 

12. Perique. — Fine fiber; gummy; adapted to Louisiana. 

4. Following are the types of export tobacco, given 

in the order of color, the darkest first: — 

1. German, — Heavy, strong, tough, elastic leaf; eighteen 

or twenty inches long. 

2. Italian. — Smooth, silky leaf ; good color. 

3. Austrian. — Smooth fiber ; firm; elastic. 

5. Sailors demand stimulants, hence dark, strong 

tobaccos, containing the largest amount of 
nicotine poison, are selected for their use, and 
made into what is called navy plug. 



Plants. Field Products. 139 

LESSON XXI. 

LITTLE THINGS. 
I. 

The great ocean has been formed from the small 
drops of rain that have fallen from the skies. The 
large rivers are formed by the union of smaller 
streams ; and these smaller streams have been 
formed in the same way by the union of many rivu- 
lets and rills. 

Trees grow so slowly that you cannot see them 
move in their growth ; but they continue growing 
little by little, and after a few years you see they 
have increased very much in size. 

The farmer who plows a field does not plow it all 
at one furrow, but he plows one furrow after 
another until the field is plowed. 

When you go to school, you do not make the 
entire distance at one bound ; but you take one step 
after another, and soon you have gone all the way. 
All the bricks in a great building are not placed 
in position at a single stroke; but each workman 
places one brick above another, and round by round 
the buildinf>- rises until finally it stands completed. 

So it is in life. All the great things are made up 
of little things. 



140 Elements of Agriculture. 

Each day we perform many duties, doing one 
thing at a time. If each act and each deed is good, 
then the entire day's action is made up of good 
deeds. 

If you wish to become great, do not seek to 
become so by a single great act, but by doing well 
each little act that falls to your lot to do. 

If you seek to be wealthy, remember the maxim, 
" Take care of the dimes, and the dollars will take 
care of themselves." 

If you have a long or a difificult task before you, 
do not grow discouraged and say, " Oh, I can never 
do that ! " Go at it earnestly ; do one part well, and 
then another part, and so on, until the task is 
finished. 



It matters not how strong or how frail the object 
used, it is best to handle it carefully. This habit 
may seem to be of little importance, but it is a 
highly valuable and commendable one. The cus- 
tom, too, of putting everything in its place when 
you have finished using it, is equally profitable. 
Performing deeds of thoughtfulness and charity 
may not, at the time, seem worth doing ; but " little 
acts of kindness " make many a heart glad, convert- 
ing tears into smiles and sorrows into joys. 



Plants. Field Products. 141 

3- 

The lessons in this book relate to the common 
things of life; to the little duties of the home; but 
these common things surround us; and these little 
duties constitute much of the life work of a vast 
majority of the human family. 

If any of these duties are yours to perform, their 
well doing will lead to the better performance of 
your every undertaking and to the achievement of 
the highest success in the ambition of your life. 



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Supplementary Reading 

A Ciassificd List for all Grades. 

GRADE I. Bass's The Beginner's Reader . 
Badlam's Primer .... 
Fuller's Illustrated Primer 
Grid's Glimpses of Nature for Little Folks 
Heart of Oak Readers, Book I 
Regal's Lessons for Little Readers 

GRADE IL Warren's From September to June with Nature 

Badlam's First Reader 

Bass's Stories of Plant Life 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book I 

Si^dden's Docas, the Indian Boy 

Wright's Seaside and Wayside Nature, Readers No. i 
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Pratt's America's Story, Beginner's Book 

Wright's Seaside and Wayside Nature Readers, No. 

Miller's My Saturday Bird Class . 

Firth's Stories of Old Greece 

Bass's Stories of Animal life 

Spear's Leaves and Flowers 

GRADE IV. Bass's Stories of Pioneer Life 

Brown's Alice and Tom 

Grinnell's Our Feathered Friends 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book III . 

Pratt's America's Story — Discoverers and Explorers 

Wright's Seaside and Wayside Nature Readers, No. 3 
GRADE V. Bull's Fridtjof Nansen . 

Grinnell's Our Feathered Friends 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book III . 

Pratt's America's Story — The Earlier Colonies . 

Kupfer's Stories of Long Ago 

GRADE VI. Starr's Strange Peoples . 

Bull's Fridtjof Nansen .... 
Heart of Oak Readers, Book IV , 
Pratt's America's Story — The Colonial Period . 
Dole's The Young Citizen 

GRADE VII. Starr's American Indians 

Penniman's School Poetry Book . 

Pratt's America's Story — The Revolution and the Republi 

Eckstorm's The Bird Book 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book IV . 

Wright's Seaside and Wayside Nature Readers, No. 4 
GRADES VIII and IX. Heart of Oak Readers, Book V 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book VI . 

Dole's The American Citizen 

Shaler's First Book in Geology (boards) 

Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield 

Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley . 



Descriptive circulars sent free on request, 

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AUG -4 1902 



i90'> 



